Copyright: Copyright 1996 by Microsoft Corporation


Contents
 Online Help Contents

Getting started

What is Bookshelf Basics?

 How do I find information?

Taking a tour

Bookshelf tour

Contents panel tour

Menus tour

Options dialog box tour

Advanced Find tour

Learning about the reference books

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases

The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations

Using screens, tools, and commands

Copying and pasting

Printing articles

Taking notes

 Searching with tools

 Changing the look and feel of Bookshelf

Searching and browsing

Opening a book

 Finding definitions, synonyms, and pronunciations

 Searching for topics

 Retracing your steps

 Working with other applications

Getting assistance

Reporting suggestions and content errors

Subscribing and upgrading to Bookshelf

 Obtaining product support


How do I find information?

Opening a book

Using tools to find articles


Searching with tools

Using tools to find articles

Searching with the Contents tab

Searching with the Find tab

Searching with the Gallery tab

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

Using search operators


Changing the look and feel of Bookshelf

Listening to and disabling pronunciations

Enabling and disabling sounds

Enabling and disabling spelling check

Enabling and disabling tooltips

Changing the color of jump text

Resizing

Changing article text size

Using keyboard shortcuts


Finding definitions, synonyms, and pronunciations

Defining words instantly

Defining words from within Microsoft PowerPoint or Word

Determining a word's pronunciation

Finding synonyms for words


Searching for topics

Browsing through articles

Browsing through an individual book

Finding articles by title or subject

Finding articles by searching for a word or words

Finding articles that include certain media

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

Jumping to related articles

Using tools to find articles


Retracing your steps

Backtracking through Bookshelf

Creating a shortcut to an article


Working with other applications

Defining words from within Microsoft PowerPoint or Word


Obtaining product support

When you have a question

Product support within the United States and Canada

Microsoft support services

Other support options

Other Microsoft services

Product support worldwide


What is Bookshelf?
What is Bookshelf Basics?

Microsoft Bookshelf Basics is a preview of the information found in the complete version of Bookshelf. Bookshelf Basics takes users beyond printed reference books and provides one-click access to three frequently used reference books: The American Heritage Dictionary, The Original Roget's Thesaurus, and The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations.

By upgrading to the complete version of Bookshelf, you’ll obtain instant access to nine of the most useful reference works, including an address builder, encyclopedia, chronology, almanac, and two entirely new books: The Bookshelf Internet Directory and the Concise Encarta World Atlas.

You can begin to explore Bookshelf by:

•	Exploring book previews. To see samples from the books available in the complete version of Bookshelf, click the buttons at the bottom of the article frame.

•	Taking the Bookshelf tour.

•	Browsing through articles.

•	Using tools to find articles.

•	Exploring the overviews to the reference books.

Dictionary

Thesaurus

Quotations


Advanced Find tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.

See also

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find


When you have a question

If you have a question about Bookshelf, first look at online Help and the documentation that came in your CD case. You can also find late-breaking updates and technical information in the ReadMe file that comes with your Bookshelf disc. If you cannot find the answer, contact the Microsoft Support Network.

Outside the United States and Canada, contact Microsoft Product Support Services at the Microsoft subsidiary office that serves your area. For information about Microsoft subsidiary offices, see “Product support worldwide.”

The Microsoft Support Network

The Microsoft Support Network offers you a wide range of choices and access to high-quality, responsive technical support. Microsoft recognizes that support needs vary from user to user; the Microsoft Support Network allows you to choose the type of support that best meets your needs, with options ranging from electronic bulletin boards to annual support programs. For information about support services in the United States and Canada, see “Product support within the U.S. and Canada.”

Services vary outside the United States and Canada. In other locations, contact a local Microsoft subsidiary for information. The Microsoft Support Network is subject to Microsoft's then-current prices, terms, and conditions, and is subject to change without notice.

See also

Product support within the U.S. and Canada

Product support worldwide


Product support within the United States and Canada

In the United States and Canada, the following support services are available through the Microsoft Support Network:

•	Electronic Services

•	Standard Support

•	Priority Support

•	Text Telephone

For details, see “Microsoft Support Services.”

See also

Microsoft support services

Other support options

Other Microsoft services

Product support worldwide


Microsoft support services

Electronic Services

These services are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, including holidays.

CompuServe

Interact with other users and Microsoft support engineers, or access the Microsoft Knowledge Base to get product information. At any ! prompt, type go microsoft or go msapp to access Microsoft forums. For an introductory CompuServe membership kit, call (800) 848-8199, operator 524.

Microsoft Download Service

Access, via modem, the Driver Library and the most current technical notes (1200, 2400, or 9600 baud; no parity; 8 data bits; 1 stop bit). In the United States, call (206) 936-6735. In Canada, call (905) 507-3022.

Internet

Access the Driver Library and the Microsoft Knowledge Base. The Microsoft Internet FTP archive host, ftp.microsoft.com, supports anonymous login. When logging in as anonymous, you should type your complete electronic mail name as your password.

Standard Support

In the United States, no-charge support from Microsoft support engineers is available via a toll call between 6:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M. Pacific time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. For technical support for Bookshelf, call (206) 635-7172.

In Canada, support engineers are available via a toll call between 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. Call (905) 568-3503.

When you call, you should be at your computer and have the appropriate product documentation at hand. Be prepared to give the following information:

•	The version number of the Microsoft product that you are using

•	The type of hardware that you are using

•	The exact wording of any messages that appeared on your screen

•	A description of what happened and what you were doing when the problem occurred

•	A description of how you tried to solve the problem

Priority Support

The Microsoft Support Network offers priority telephone access to Microsoft support engineers 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, except holidays.

•	In the United States, call (900) 555-2000; $2 (U.S.) per minute, $25 (U.S.) maximum. Charges appear on your telephone bill. Not available in Canada.

•	In the United States, call (800) 936-5700; $25 (U.S.) per incident, billed to your VISA card, MasterCard, or American Express card. In Canada, call (800) 668-7975; $30 per incident, billed to your VISA card, MasterCard, or American Express card.

Text Telephone

Microsoft text telephone (TT/TDD) services are available for the deaf or hard-of-hearing. In the United States, using a TT/TDD modem, dial (206) 635-4948 between 6:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M. Pacific time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. In Canada, using a TT/TDD modem, dial (905) 568-9641 between 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays.

See also

Other support options

Other Microsoft services


Other support options

The Microsoft Support Network offers annual support plans. For information, in the United States, contact the Microsoft Support Network Sales and Information group at (800) 936-3500 between 6:00 A.M. and 6:00 P.M. Pacific time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. In Canada, call (800) 668-7975 between 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays.

See also

Other Microsoft services


Other Microsoft services

Microsoft Solution Providers Program

Microsoft Solution Providers are independent organizations that provide consulting, integration, customization, development, technical support and training, and other services for Microsoft products. These companies are called Solution Providers because they apply technology and provide services to help solve real-world problems.

In the United States, for more information about the Microsoft Solution Providers program or the Microsoft Solution Provider nearest to you, call (800) 426-9400 between 6:30 A.M. and 5:30 P.M. Pacific time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays. In Canada, call (800) 563-9048 between 8:00 A.M. and 8:00 P.M. Eastern time, Monday through Friday, excluding holidays.

Microsoft TechNet

Microsoft TechNet is an annual information service created for those who support or educate end users, administer networks or databases, create automated solutions and recommend or evaluate information technology solutions. Microsoft TechNet gives you the answers you need, when you need them by providing timely, comprehensive and in-depth information on Microsoft products and on supporting and administering Microsoft-based solutions via the monthly Microsoft TechNet CD and monthly TechNet Supplemental (Drivers & Patches) CD.

For more information about Microsoft TechNet, in the United States and Canada, call (800) 344-2121, dept. 3013, between 7:00 A.M. and 7:00 P.M. Central time, Monday through Friday.

See also

Microsoft support services

Other support options


Product support worldwide

Outside the U.S. and Canada, contact Microsoft Product Support Services at the Microsoft subsidiary serving your area.


Defining words instantly

When you're reading an article in Bookshelf and you're unsure of the meaning of a word, you can instantly view the word's definition.

•	To display the definition of a word, use the right-mouse button to click the word, then click the Definition command in the shortcut menu that appears.

•	To close the definition box and return to the original source, click the Close button or click somewhere outside of the definition box.

See also

Overview - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition


Enabling and disabling the daily preview

You can use the Preview of the Day dialog box to enable and disable the daily preview feature. If enabled, the feature will display a preview article from the complete version of Bookshelf each time you start Bookshelf Basics. The feature is enabled by default.

To disable the daily preview

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Preview of the Day command.

2	In the Preview of the Day dialog box, click the checkbox labeled “Show again at startup” so that the box does not contain a checkmark.

To enable the daily preview

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Preview of the Day command.

2	In the Preview of the Day dialog box, click the checkbox labeled “Show again at startup” so that the box does contain a checkmark.


Creating a shortcut to an article

From within any book, you can create a shortcut to an article to which you want to return. The shortcut is placed on the desktop.

To create a shortcut to an article

1	Use the right-mouse button to click anywhere inside the article.

2	In the shortcut menu that appears, click the Create Shortcut command.


Enabling and disabling sounds

You can use the Options dialog box to enable or disable Bookshelf's audio pronunciations and interface sounds. Bookshelf sounds are enabled by default.

To disable Bookshelf sounds

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Enable Interface Sounds checkbox so that the box doesn't contain a checkmark, then click the OK button.

To enable Bookshelf sounds

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Enable Interface Sounds checkbox so that the box contains a checkmark, then click the OK button.

See also

Enabling and disabling pronunciations


Finding articles by searching for a word or words

With the Find tab in the contents panel, you can search for all Bookshelf articles that contain a specific word or words. You type the word(s) for which you want to search into the white text box near the top of the Find tab.

To search articles for a specific word or words

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	In the contents panel, click the Find tab. The Find tab becomes the top layer.

3	In the text box, type the word(s) for which you wish to search, then click the Find button or press ENTER. The articles containing the word(s) you typed appear in the Articles list. Click on any title to view an article.

Note  If you want to search for multiple words as a phrase, put quotation marks (" ") around them. For information on more sophisticated types of searches, see Using search operators.

You can also perform searches on words you see within Bookshelf articles.

•	To find other articles containing a certain word, use the right-mouse button to click on the word, click Find In, and then specify which books you wish to have searched.

See also

Opening a book

Using tools to find articles

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

Printing articles


Finding articles by title or subject

You can use the Contents tab to find articles by their titles or subject areas.

To find an article by its title or subject

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	Click the Contents tab. The Contents tab becomes the top layer.

3	In the text box, type the name of the subject or article title you want. As you begin to type, the Articles list jumps to the part of the alphabet you specify.

4	Click a title or subject (an entry with a plus (+) next to it). If you select an article title, the article will appear. If you click a subject, it expands to show articles within that subject.

Note  To collapse the subject again, click its minus sign (-).

5	If you clicked a subject, click on an article title within a subject to display the article.

See also

Opening a book

Printing articles

Using tools to find articles


Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

With Advanced Find, you can filter through articles by searching for media and article types, searching only in certain books, and searching for certain combinations of words. You can combine criteria to narrow your search even more. For example, to find quotations by theologian Martin Luther, you could search for all articles in the Quotations book that contain the words “Martin Luther” but not “King”.

To search using Advanced Find

1	Click the Advanced Find button on the feature bar.

2	Follow the instructions in the Advanced Find dialog box to select the criteria for which you want to search.

3	When you've selected all of your search criteria, click the Find button or press ENTER.

If any articles match your search criteria, the Advanced Find dialog box disappears and the titles of those articles appear in the Articles list.

If no articles match your search criteria, a message informs you of that fact, and you can try another search.

See also

Using tools to find articles

Printing articles

Using search operators


Backtracking through articles

Bookshelf provides several ways of returning to articles you've previously viewed. The Back List displays the titles of up to 40 articles that you've previously opened, and the Back button retraces your movements, one article at a time.

•	To backtrack using a list of articles you've previously viewed, click the Back List [image] button in bottom-right corner of the screen, then in the Back List that appears, click the article to which you want to return. The specified article appears.

•	To retrace your movements one step at a time, click the Back button. The articles you've viewed appear, in order of most recent to least recent.

See also

Creating a shortcut to an article

Browsing through articles

Using tools to find articles


Browsing through articles

Using the browse controls on the feature bar, you can backtrack through articles you've viewed, or you can browse through a book's article sequence.

•	To browse through topics in sequence, click one of the browse [image] arrows in the lower right-hand corner of the screen.

•	To backtrack using a list of articles you've previously viewed, click the Back List [image] button in the lower right-hand corner of the screen, then in the Back List that appears, click the article to which you want to return. The specified article appears.

•	To retrace your movements one step at a time, click the Back button. The articles you've viewed appear, in order of most recent to least recent.

See also

Browsing through an individual book

Using tools to find articles

Jumping to related articles


Browsing through an individual book

If you prefer, you can view only the articles within a particular reference book.

•	To select a reference book through which to browse, click the Books menu, then click the book that you want.

See also

Browsing through articles

Using tools to find articles

Jumping to related articles

Backtracking through articles


Shortcut menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.

See also

Defining words instantly

Creating a shortcut to an article

Jumping to related articles

Copying and pasting


Copying and pasting

You can copy text from within an article or another application, and then paste that text into any text box in Bookshelf, including those in Notes. You can also copy an address, media, or text from Bookshelf articles and use it in another application, such as your word processor.

•	To select an image, use your mouse to click and drag over the image until a black border appears. For information about enlarged images, see the Note below.

•	To copy Bookshelf text or images to the Clipboard, use your mouse to select what you want to copy, click the right-mouse button, then in the shortcut menu, click Copy.

Note  Enlarged images cannot be selected; press CTRL + C to copy enlarged images to the Clipboard.

•	To copy pronunciations to the Clipboard, use your right-mouse button to click the audio [image] icon, then in the shortcut menu, click the Copy command.

•	To copy selected text directly into Microsoft Excel, Word, or PowerPoint, click the right-mouse button, then in the shortcut menu, point to the Copy to command, then select the application to which you want to copy the text.

Note  If you're copying and pasting a table into Word, you may need to reformat the text using Word's Text to Table command. For more information about converting text to a table, see the Word documentation.

•	To paste text from the Clipboard, insert the cursor where you want the text or media to be placed, click the Edit menu, and then click Paste.

See also

Taking notes

Printing articles


Bookshelf tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.

See also

Menus tour

Contents panel tour

Shortcut menu tour

Options dialog box tour


Feature bar tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.


Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases - Overview
Overview

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases

Longman's original Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases is a vast resource of over a quarter of a million words and phrases classified according to underlying ideas and meaning. Each entry contains many more related terms than the typical thesaurus. This thesaurus is often an indispensable companion for writers and speakers that can help you expand your vocabulary,  avoid repetition, or simply recall a word that has slipped your mind.

The words and phrases in the Longman version of Roget's Thesaurus are categorized into six classes. Dr. Peter Mark Roget developed this classification system in the 1800s for the first thesaurus, and his system has proven capable of absorbing new concepts and new vocabulary. Dr. Roget used a logical progression from abstract concept, through the material universe, to mankind itself, culminating in what he saw as mankind's highest achievements: morality and religion. First published in 1852, this complete unabridged edition is fully revised to reflect the English language of the 1990s.

In the contents panel, Thesaurus articles are designated with an orange [image] icon.

See also

Opening a book

Front matter- Thesaurus

Finding synonyms for words


Using tools to find articles

Many of Bookshelf's tools and books can help you find the article you want.

For finding articles according to. . .	Use	See this Help topic
. . .their titles	Contents tab	Finding articles by title or subject
. . .words they contain	Find tab	Finding articles by searching for a word or words
. . .media they contain	Gallery tab	Finding articles that include certain media
See also

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find


Reporting suggestions and content errors

If you have suggestions for features you would like to see in future editions of Microsoft Bookshelf, please contact our Wish line:

•	by phone, (206) 936-WISH

•	by Internet, send e-mail to mswish@microsoft.com or use your World Wide Web browser to access this address:
http://www.microsoft.com/support/feedback

If you have comments about errors, comprehensiveness, or validity of information presented, please send them to:

Bookshelf Program Manager

Consumer Division

Microsoft Corporation

One Microsoft Way

Redmond, WA  98052-6399

Please note that we receive a large number of suggestions and comments regarding Microsoft Bookshelf and are unable to respond directly to each one. However, be assured that your recommendations, ideas, and remarks are recorded and help shape future versions of Microsoft Bookshelf.


Taking notes

You can use the Note feature to keep track of articles and make notes to yourself, just as you might with a paper stick-on note in a book. While you're viewing an article, you can open the Note box and attach a Note to that article. You can review, make comments about, add, and remove notes from within the Note dialog box.

•	To open the Note box, click the Edit menu, then click Note. To attach a note to an article, open the Note box, then click the Add Current Article button.

Once you attach a note to an article, the note [image] icon appears to the right of the article's title.

•	To enter your comments within a note, insert the cursor in the Annotation field, then type your remarks.

•	To paste article text into a note, copy the text to the Clipboard, insert the cursor in the Annotation field, then press CTRL + V

•	To remove a note from the Note box, select the note to be removed, then click the Delete button.

•	To go to an article to which a Note is attached, click the appropriate title in the Articles field, then click the Go To button.

•	To view a note attached to an article, click the note [image] icon in the upper-right corner of the article panel.

See also

Copying and pasting

Using tools to find articles


The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language - Overview
Overview

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition brings you the richness of American English with more than 350,000 definitions written in clear, exact language. In addition to over 16,000 new words, this edition of The American Heritage Dictionary includes over 500 Usage Notes; Regional Notes; cross-referenced Synonym Paragraphs; and a Pronunciation Key. This comprehensive Dictionary offers expanded historical information in more than 400 Word History paragraphs and also includes Indo-European Roots that allow you to trace our language back 6,000 years to its ancestral origins.

Bookshelf enhances the information provided by The American Heritage Dictionary with images, audio and animation clips, pronunciations, and videos.

In the contents panel, Dictionary articles are designated with a blue [image] icon.

See also

Opening a book

Defining words instantly

Determining a word's pronunciation

Listening to and disabling pronunciations

Front matter - Dictionary


The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations - Overview
Overview

The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations

The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations contains more than 18,000 remarks, witticisms, judgments, and observations on 1,500 subjects that reflect the range of human experience. The quotations in this collection were spoken or written by both the famous and the forgotten—figures modern as well as old—who collectively constitute the shapers of our modern cultural landscape. These memorable, funny, or profound quotations were chosen not for their familiarity but for their relevance in the 1990s.

Bookshelf enhances The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations with images and audio recordings of some of the people whose quotes are presented.

In the contents panel, quotations are designated with a green [image] icon.

See also

Opening a book

Front matter - Quotations


Finding synonyms for words

You can use the Thesaurus to look up synonyms—words similar in meaning—for a word you specify. This is particularly useful if you're trying to think of a word but can't; if you look up a similar word in the Thesaurus, its synonym list may include the word you want.

To find a synonym for a word

1	Open the Thesaurus.

2	Click the Contents tab in the contents panel. The Contents tab becomes the top layer.

3	In the text box, type the word for which you want to find synonyms. As you type, the Articles list jumps to the part of the alphabet you specify.

4	Click an entry in the Articles list to display an article or list of articles from which you can choose.

See also

Opening a book

Overview - Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases

Defining words instantly

Printing articles


Books menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.

See also

Browsing through an individual book


Changing articles' text size

Using the Options dialog box, you can change the size of article text. If you click the Reset button, all of the options revert to their default settings.

To change text size

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click a text size, and then click the OK button.

Also, you can see more of an article's text and images at one time by using your whole screen for Bookshelf. For information about resizing screens, see Resizing.


Changing the color of jump text

Using the Options dialog box, you can change the color of jump text, or hotspots. If you click the Reset button, all of the options revert to their default settings.

“Jump hotspots” refers to colored text that, when clicked, opens an entirely new topic. “Pop-up hotspots” refers to colored text that has a dotted underline and opens an explanatory window.

To change the color of jump text

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the radio button under the colors you want, then click the OK button.


Resizing

You can enlarge or reduce the size of the Bookshelf window by clicking and dragging its edge. You can also increase the size of the article panel by hiding or resizing the contents panel.

•	To hide the contents panel, click its Hide [image] button.

•	To display the contents panel, click its Show [image] button.

•	To resize the article and contents panels, click and drag the divider between them.

See also

Changing articles' text size


Contents tab

Use this tab to search for articles by their titles. The Contents tab is visible in this picture.


Contents tab

Use this tab to search for articles by their titles. See also Bookshelf tour.


Find tab

Use this tab to search for articles by the words they contain. See Find tab tour.


Gallery tab

Use this tab to search for articles that contain certain media. See Gallery tab tour.


Edit menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.


File menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.


Find tab tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.


Contents tab tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.


Gallery tab tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.


Menus tour

In the picture, click on a menu to view more information about it.

See also

Shortcut menu tour


Control menu

Click to access commands for minimizing, maximizing, and closing Bookshelf.


Contents panel tour

The contents panel contains three overlapping tabs—Contents, Find, and Gallery—that help you find information in Bookshelf. To learn more about how a tab functions, click it below.


Determining a word's pronunciation

In the Dictionary, you can view and even listen to the correct pronunciation of a word. The Pronunciation Key explains the phonetic spelling of a word.

•	To listen to a word's pronunciation, click the sound [image] icon next to the word.

•	To view the Pronunciation Key, click the word's phonetic spelling, which is in colored text in parentheses.

See also

Overview - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition


Jump text

Jump text is colored text that when clicked, jumps to another place in Bookshelf.


Using keyboard shortcuts

For menus, commands, and buttons. . .

Press	To
ALT + letter key	Choose the menu whose underlined letter matches the one you type.
Letter key	After ALT + letter key, chooses the menu command whose underlined letter matches the one you type (when a menu is open).
F1	Open Help.
F2	Enter Edit mode in the active field.
F7	Check spelling in the active field.
Left or right arrow	Move among menus (when a menu is open).
Up or down arrow	Move among commands (when a menu is open).
ENTER	Choose the selected menu command.
ESC	Cancel the selected menu.
CTRL+ X	Cut selected, editable text and place it on the Clipboard.
CTRL+ V	Place text from the Clipboard at the cursor's location.
CTRL+ C	Copy selected text or image (or enlarged image) and place it on the Clipboard.
CTRL+ P	Open the Print dialog box and print the selected portion of the text or, if no text is selected, the entire open article.
CTRL+ B	See the previously viewed article.
CTRL+ SHIFT+ <	Browse to the previous article in the current book.
CTRL+ SHIFT+ >	Browse to the next article in the current book.
CTRL+ N	Open the Note dialog box.
CTRL+ A	Select all (if the cursor is in the Article window).
ALT+ N	Display the next article in the Articles list.
ALT+ P	Display the previous article in the Articles list.
CTRL+ L	Open the Back List.

For Tabs in the contents panel

Press	To open
CTRL+ T	Contents Tab.
CTRL+ F	Find Tab.
CTRL+ G	Gallery Tab.


Defining words from within Microsoft PowerPoint or Word

Bookshelf, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Word work together so that you can use the Office shortcut menu to look up words in the Bookshelf Dictionary.

To look up the definition of a word while in Microsoft PowerPoint or Word

1	Using the right mouse button, click on the word you want to define.

2	In the shortcut menu, click the Define command. Bookshelf opens, displaying the word's Dictionary entry.

See also

Overview - The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition


Opening a book

When you open Bookshelf, all of the books' entries appear in the Articles list. Using the book selector bar, you can narrow down that list by opening a single book.

•	To open a book, click the book selector bar atop the contents panel, then in the menu that appears, click the book you wish to open. The book opens, the Articles list contains entries from only that book, and the title bar indicates which book is open.

•	To open every book in Bookshelf, click the book selector bar atop the contents panel, then in the menu that appears, click the All Books command. The Articles list contains entries from every book.


City, state, and ZIP code fields

Enter the city, state, and ZIP code, or just enter a ZIP code to find the city.


Find button

Click to search for an address match.


Address fields

Enter the primary street address (such as “150 Main St.”) in the first text box. Use the lower text box to enter the building number or apartment number; otherwise, leave it blank.


Add Current Article button

If you've got an article open and clicked Note, the name of the article appears on the right. To add this article to the Articles list, click the Add Current Article button.


Annotation field

Enter your comments pertaining to the article that's highlighted in the Articles list.


Articles list

The Articles list displays the articles that meet the current search criteria. Click an article in the list to display the article in the article panel.


Provide Automatic Spelling option

If the Provide Automatic Spelling option is checked, Bookshelf automatically checks the spelling when you search for a word using the Contents tab, Find tab, or Advanced Find dialog box.


Book indicator bar

The book indicator bar shows which book is currently open.


Book selector bar

Click to see a menu listing of all the books. Open a book by clicking on its title in the menu.


Show/hide contents panel button

Click to make the contents panel appear and disappear. This increases and decreases the size of articles.


Copy Address button

Click to copy the current address to the Clipboard.


Close button

Click to close this dialog box.


Enable Interface Sounds option

If this option is checked, Bookshelf is able to play pronunications, national anthems, and other sound media.


Enable Pronunciations option

If this option is checked, Dictionary definitions will include written and audio pronunciations of each word or phrase.


Find button

Enter a word or words in the text field above, then click the Find button to begin a search for articles that contain the word(s).


Text box

Type the word or words for which you want to search.


Find button

Click to search for address information that matches the address criteria you type in the fields above.


Cancel button

Click to close the dialog box.


Help button

Click to open the online Help topic about this dialog box.


Go To button

Highlight an article in the list above and click the Go To button to open the article.


Jump color buttons

Click a button under a color to change jump text to that color.


If checked, displays large style book icons in the QuickShelf bar. If disabled, the book icons appear smaller.


Drop-down menus

Click menus to perform most functions.


Delete button

Select a title in the Articles list and click the Delete button to remove that title.


Okay button

Click to save your changes and return to the open article.


If checked, QuickShelf always remains visible. If you switch applications, you'll still see the QuickShelf bar.


OK button

Click to save changes you've made in the Options dialog box.


Jump color buttons

Click a button under a color to change the specified kind of jump text to that color.


Click the check box next to a book to display the book's icon on the QuickShelf bar. If a check mark is missing, the book icon won't appear on the QuickShelf bar.


Reset button

Click to change all the options back to the default settings.


Search Word field

Type the word or words for which you want to search, then click the Find button.


Books selected

Your search will include articles in the books check-marked here.


City, state, and ZIP code recommendations field

After you type address information and click the Find button, this field displays the city, state, and ZIP code information that matches the address you entered.


If checked, QuickShelf displays the names of the books on the QuickShelf bar as you pass the cursor over the book icon.


Check spelling button

Click to spell-check the word(s) in the text box.


Contents panel search tabs

Use the Contents tab and the Find tab to search for an article. Use the Gallery tab to search for an article that contains a particular media type, such as audio and animation clips or images.


Show Tooltips option

If this option is checked, Bookshelf displays small descriptions of screen regions as you pass the cursor over the regions.


Text size options

Click a text size button to change the size of the text in Bookshelf articles.


Article panel

This panel displays the article you choose.


Back button

Click to retrace the articles you've opened, in order of most recent to least recent.


Back List button

Click to view a list of up to 40 articles you've previously viewed during this session. Click a title in the list to return to the article.


Advanced Find button

Click to open the Advanced Find feature.


Advanced Find command

Click to open the Advanced Find feature.


Browse arrow buttons

Click to display the next and previous articles in the current book.


Next button

Click to display a random word or quote.


Show again at startup option

Click this option to enable and disable the Preview of the Day word or quote. If a check appears in the box, Bookshelf displays a different word or quote whenever you start the program.


Book commands

Click a title to open that book or its preview.


All Books command

Click to open every book in Bookshelf.


Back List command

Click to display the Back List, a list of up to 40 articles you've viewed since starting Bookshelf.


Preview of the Day command

Click to open the Preview of the Day dialog box. Use Preview of the Day to display previews of the complete version of Bookshelf each time you start Bookshelf Basics.


Close the Bookshelf Daily dialog box.


Displays the color of hypertext (hot spots).


Copy command

Select text or media, then click the Copy command to place the selected item on the Clipboard. You can then paste the item into a Note or into another application's document.


Copy the picture in the open article onto the Clipboard.


Copy the pronunciation in the open article onto the Clipboard. (This command is available only when the open article contains a sound you can copy.)


Copy to PowerPoint command

Select text or media, then click the Copy to PowerPoint command to paste the item into Microsoft PowerPoint.


Copy to Word command

Select text or media, then click the Copy to Word command to paste the item into Microsoft Word.


Copy To command

Select text or media, point to the Copy To command, and then choose the application into which you want to paste the selected item.


Copy command

Select text or media, then click the Copy command to place a copy of the item on the Clipboard.


Create Shortcut command

Click to create a shortcut to the current article. The shortcut is placed on the desktop.


Cut command

Select text and click the Cut command to remove any editable text and place that text on the Clipboard. Unlike the Copy command, Cut deletes the selected text.


Define command

Select a word and click the Define command to open the word's Dictionary entry.


Exit command

Click to end this Bookshelf session.


Find command

Click to open the Find tab in the contents panel.


Find button

After you've typed a word or words into the text box, click the Find button to begin searching for articles containing the text.


Find in command

Select a word, point to the Find in command, then click the book in which you want to look for articles pertaining to the selected word.


Gallery command

Click to open the Gallery tab in the contents panel.


Hints button

Click to view suggestions for narrowing the scope of your search.


Jump color buttons

Click a button under a color to change the specified kind of jump text to that color.


Show again at startup option

Select the Show again at startup option, and a quote or definition will appear when you start Bookshelf.


Note command

Click to open the Note tool.


Options command

Click to open the Options dialog box.


Paste command

Place the insertion point in an editable text field, then click the Paste command to place text from the Clipboard into the field.


Print Article command

Click to open the Print dialog box.


Word/quote field

In this box, words or quotations appear.


Word and Quote buttons

Click these tab buttons to choose between word or quote of the day.


Book selection search options

Select the book or books you want to search.


Table of Contents command

Click to open the Contents tab, which lists all articles and subject areas alphabetically.


Media search options

Click a search media option to limit your search to articles containing certain media types.


Scope of search options

Select a search scope option to define the articles in which you want to search.

•	To search through all of the articles in the book that's currently open, click All Articles.

•	To limit the search to the article currently open, click Current Article Only.

•	To limit the search to the articles in the list generated by your last search, click Last Articles Found.


Browse arrow buttons

Click to display the next and previous articles in the current book.


Printing articles

You can print part or all of an article's text. If you do not select text before you click the Print command, all of the article text prints.

To print all or part of an article

1	Open the article you want to print. If you want to print the entire article, go to step 3.

2	If you want to print only a portion of the article, select the text by clicking and dragging your mouse over that portion of the article.

3	Click the File menu, then click the Print Article command. The selected portion prints.

Note  The printed result may have a different appearance than the article on your screen. For example, fonts and special characters may print differently, and images may not print clearly. Also note that Bookshelf automatically includes a citation for the source of the article.


Using the contents panel

In the contents panel, the Articles list displays titles of Bookshelf articles and subject areas. You display an article by clicking its title in this list. Furthermore, each subject area expands to list articles about that subject.

•	To expand a subject—an entry with a plus (+) symbol next to it—click the subject entry. A list of articles about that subject appears.

•	To collapse the subject again, click its minus sign (-).

•	To show and hide the contents panel, click the hide/show [image] button.

Three versatile tabs help you find the article for which you're looking. Click the tabs to place one on top of the others. When you start Bookshelf, the Contents tab is on top, and it lists every article and subject area in Bookshelf. You can work from this comprehensive list, or you can use the other tabs to narrow the types of articles that appear in the list. The Find tab lists only the articles that include the word or words you specify. The Gallery tab lists only the articles that include the media type you specify.

See also

Searching with the Contents tab	Contents panel tour

Searching with the Find tab	Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

Searching with the Gallery tab	Opening a book


 Searching with the Contents tab

Use the Contents tab when you know the title of the article you want. One of the three contents panel tabs, the Contents tab serves as table of contents, listing every title and subject area for the open book.

To use the Contents tab to search for an article

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	Click the Contents tab in the contents panel. The Contents tab becomes the top layer.

3	In the text box, type the name of the article or subject area you want. As you begin to type, the Articles list jumps to the part of the alphabet you specify.

4	Click a title or subject (an entry with a plus (+) next to it). If you select an article title, the article will appear. If you click a subject, it expands to show articles within that subject.

Note  To collapse the subject again, click its minus sign (-).

5	If you clicked a subject, click on an article title within a subject to display the article.

See also

Opening a book

Bookshelf tour

Using the contents panel


 Searching with the Find tab

Use the Find tab when you know the word or words you want articles to contain. One of the three contents panel tabs, the Find tab serves as a search tool, listing titles for every article that contains the text you specify.

To use the Find tab to search for an article

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	In the contents panel, click the Find tab. The Find tab becomes the top layer.

3	In the text box, type the word(s) for which you wish to search, then click the Find button or press ENTER. The articles containing the word(s) you typed appear in the Articles list. Click on any title to view an article.

Note  If you want to search for multiple words as a phrase, put quotation marks around them. For information on more sophisticated types of searches, see Using search operators.

4	Click a title in the Articles list to display the corresponding article.

See also

Opening a book

Bookshelf tour

Using the contents panel

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find


 Searching with the Gallery tab

Use the Gallery tab to search for articles that contain audio or animation clips, video, or images. One of the three contents panel tabs, the Gallery tab serves as a filter for articles that contain the media type you specify.

To use the Gallery tab to search for an article

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	Click the Gallery tab in the contents panel. The Gallery tab becomes the top layer.

3	Select a type of media. The Articles list displays titles of the articles that contain that form of media.

4	Select a title in the Articles list to display the corresponding article.

See also

Opening a book

Bookshelf tour

Using the contents panel

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find


Using search operators

Narrow the scope of a full-text search by searching for combinations of words. Between the words for which you're searching, you can enter the operators AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR in either lowercase or uppercase letters (for example, "and" is the same as "AND"). You can also specify an exact phrase for which to search by enclosing that phrase in quotation marks (" ").

Like a math problem, searches using multiple operators are evaluated from left to right. You can use parentheses to specify a different order—operators within parentheses are evaluated first.

Note  Advanced Find won't look for common words such as "a", "and", and "the".

The operators word as shown below.

Search requested	Result
moon AND landing	Finds articles containing both the word "moon" and the word "landing."
moon landing	Finds articles containing "moon" and "landing". Since AND is the default operator, the results are the same as above.
"moon landing"	Finds articles containing the exact phrase "moon landing".
moon OR landing	Finds articles containing "moon" or "landing" or both.
moon NOT landing	Finds articles containing "moon" but not "landing".
moon NEAR landing	Finds articles containing "moon" and "landing" where the two words are separated by eight or fewer words.
See also

Finding articles by searching for a word or words

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find


Options dialog box tour

Pass the mouse cursor over the picture. When the mouse cursor becomes a hand [image] icon, you can click a region to view more information.

See also

Enabling and disabling tooltips

Enabling and disabling pronunciations

Enabling and disabling spelling check

Enabling and disabling sounds

Changing the color of jump text

Changing articles' text size


Listening to and disabling pronunciations

When you click the audio [image] icon in a Dictionary definition, you hear a pronunciation of the defined word.

You can use the Options dialog box to enable or disable the word pronunciation portion of Dictionary definitions. Pronunciations are enabled by default.

To disable pronunciations

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Enable Pronunciations checkbox so that the box doesn't contain a checkmark, then click the OK button.

To enable pronunciations

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Enable Pronunciations checkbox so that the box contains a checkmark, then click the OK button.


Enabling and disabling tooltips

You can use the Options dialog box to enable or disable tooltips, the labels that appear when you pass your cursor over screen objects. Tooltips are enabled by default.

To disable tooltips

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Show Tooltips checkbox so that the box doesn't contain a checkmark, then click the OK button.

To enable tooltips

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Show Tooltips checkbox so that the box contains a checkmark, then click the OK button.


Enabling and disabling spelling check

In the Options dialog box, you can set Bookshelf to check the spelling of words for which you search. Spelling check is enabled by default.

To disable spelling check

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Provide Automatic Spelling checkbox so that the box doesn't contain a checkmark, then click the OK button.

To enable spelling check

1	Click the Tools menu, then click the Options command.

2	In the Options dialog box, click the Provide Automatic Spelling checkbox so that the box contains a checkmark, then click the OK button.


Finding articles that include certain media

You can use the contents panel's Gallery tab to search for articles that contain audio or animation clips, video, or images.

To use the Gallery tab to search for an article

1	Open the book you wish to search. To search all of Bookshelf, select All Books.

2	Click the Gallery tab in the contents panel. The Gallery tab becomes the top layer.

3	Select a type of media. The Articles list displays titles of the articles that contain that form of media.

4	Select a title in the Articles list to display the corresponding article.

See also

Opening a book

Contents panel tour

Narrowing your search with Advanced Find

Printing articles


Subscribing or upgrading to Bookshelf

Subscribing

Even as you read this sentence, our staff is already hard at work compiling information for next year's Microsoft Bookshelf CD-ROM reference library. Now there's a convenient, no-risk way to keep your copy of Bookshelf current and get the latest, up-to-date information automatically delivered to your home. Just sign up for a Bookshelf annual subscription.

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*Price does not include $5.00 U.S./$7.50 CDN shipping and handling and applicable sales tax in the following states:  AR, AZ, CA, CO, CT, DC, FL, GA, HI, IA, ID, IL, IN, KS, KY, LA, MA, MD, ME, MI, MN, MO, MS, NC, ND, NE, NJ (NJ residents pay tax on cost only), NM, NV, NY, OH, OK, PA, RI, SC, SD, TN, TX, UT, VA, VT, WA, WI, WV, & WY. In Canada, sales tax includes GST (7%) for all provinces plus PST in the following provinces: Ontario 8% and BC 7% (all other provinces are exempt from PST).  Microsoft's GST rebate number is R1356125069. Offer expires May 31, 1998. Offer not valid with any other offers. Microsoft Corporation reserves the right to modify prices, terms, and conditions of this offer at any time without notice. Offer valid only in the 50 United States and Canada. Product will be shipped upon availability. If you have questions regarding this order or shipment status, please call 800-440-5087.  Customers who are deaf or hard of hearing can reach Microsoft text telephone (TT/TDD) services by calling 800-892-5234 in the U.S. and 905-568-9641 in Canada. Microsoft, Bookshelf, and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. Macintosh is a registered trademark of Apple Computer, Inc.

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Jumping to related articles

You can move from one article to another in several ways:

•	While reading an article, look for an article title in colored ("jump") text, which when clicked causes you to jump to another place in Bookshelf. Click on the title to jump to that article.

•	Click on a key word using the right mouse button. On the shortcut menu, point to Find in, then click a book in the book list. A list of articles that contain the word—and that are in the book you specified—appears in the contents panel.

See also

Browsing through articles

Changing the color of jump text


Tools menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.


Tools menu

Click to access Bookshelf tools. See Tools menu tour.


File menu

Click to access the Bookshelf File menu commands. See File menu tour.


Edit menu

Click to access the Bookshelf Edit menu. See Edit menu tour.


Books menu

Click to access the reference books. See Books menu tour.


Help menu

Click to access Bookshelf's Help menu. See Help menu tour.


Help menu tour

In the picture, click on a menu command to view more information.


Copyright Information command

Click to read copyright information for Bookshelf and its books.


Help contents command

Click to open the table of contents for Bookshelf's online Help.


Keyboard shortcuts command

Click to open the Help topic on using keystroke commands


Shortcut to Bookshelf Forum on MSN command

If you have Microsoft Network access, click to jump to the MSN forum about Bookshelf.


Send Product Suggestion command

If you have access to the World Wide Web, click this command to jump to a Web site where you can make suggestions for future versions of Bookshelf.


About Microsoft Bookshelf command

Click to display information about your copy of Bookshelf.


 Front matter for reference books

Three books have front matter available for you to read. Click on a title below to read a book's front matter, click the Contents button to display the contents of online Help, or press ESC to return to Bookshelf.

Dictionary

Thesaurus

Quotations


Front matter - The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations
Front matter

The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations

Introduction

The art of quotation is as old as human speech, and collections of writings and sayings have been with us since the invention of letters. It seems that we have need of a corpus of recognized authorities to bolster our knowledge or confirm our beliefs. Books of quotations are an elemental model of how culture is perpetuated, the wisdom of the tribe passed on to posterity, to be added to, edited, and modified by subsequent generations. But whereas many anthologies remain content to recycle inventories of ancestral wisdom, cataloguing our cultural waymarks according to the gnomic pronouncements of our forebears, The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations is a book intended for our own times; its keynote is not familiarity, but aptness. It embraces the past in order to illustrate the present.

Arranged under topics which reflect the gamut of human experience, the quotations in this book have been chosen because they matter, because they were spoken or written by people who matter, and because they address issues as important now as they were for Ben Jonson or Benjamin Franklin. Thus, alongside the established sources I have included others, many previously unanthologized, or at best under-represented, in other collections—figures modern as well as old—who collectively constitute the shapers of our modern cultural landscape.

This format has allowed me to venture far beyond the confines of the conventional quotation anthology, bringing to light all but forgotten sources as well as deeper insights into those icons whom we have always presumed to know. In the welter of unfiltered information unleashed by the media age, it is easy to lose sight of the authentic wellsprings that have fertilized our thought and shaped our consciousness. Fashions change, and increasingly there is a need for us to take stock, to remind ourselves of these formative influences both past and present, to help us understand who we are, where we have come from, where we might end. If, in perusing this mosaic of aperçus and opinions, you find yourself stimulated, subverted, or enlightened, it may well be the challenge of confronting your own image that has aroused you.

The inescapable impression that strikes the reader of these clashing perspectives is how the same topics absorbed the minds of different generations and how "modern" so many of the discussions of them appear to us today: on EQUALITY, for example; on LITERATURE AND SOCIETY; on BUSINESS AND COMMERCE; and on CHILDREN. In assembling all this material, I have been impressed, as I hope the reader will be, not so much by how reactions to these eternal themes have differed through the centuries, but by the degree to which they varied within the same generation and converged across the gulf of years. "Elegant juxtapositions are one of the delights of any anthology," wrote the author A. S. Byatt: here they are accidental, but no less pleasurable. To sift through these quotations is to eavesdrop on an endless argument, a vociferous hubbub of voices that alternately shocks and soothes. Some are, in the words German critic Walter Benjamin, "like wayside robbers who leap out armed and relieve the stroller of his conviction," while others achieve that rate perfection of style summarized by Pope, "What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed."

Quotations have been selected on the basis that it is just as important for us to know what Susan Sontag and John Updike said on a certain subject as it is to acquaint ourselves with the views of Jonathan Swift and Henry David Thoreau on the same. Harriet Martineau had an opinion: what was it? Walter Lippmann was a giant in the field of twentieth-century political thought: let us remind ourselves of his argument. Similarly, we need to know what the Marquis de Sade thought about society and moral values, just as we need to be aware of Andrea Dworkin's viewpoint. It is too easy for stereotypes to congeal around certain figures without going to the trouble of listening to what they have to say. The Bible is an important influence on the world, the Qur'an no less so. Dr. Johnson can amuse and entertain us; so can Lenny Bruce. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was a superb speaker: what did he say? And how exactly did his philosophy differ from that of Malcolm X?

Among the voices that have found space in these pages are those of individuals and groups whose contribution to debate has been seriously under-acknowledged in other collections. These include women, dissenters of all persuasions, minorities, homosexuals and lesbians, and a significant sample from non-English-speaking nations—not because there has been any exercise in positive discrimination, but because their literary and polemical engagement in the perennial questions about ourselves and the world we live in is valuable, and we cannot afford to ignore it.

At the same time I make no apology for taking from many habitués of quotation anthologies—such giants of aphorism and wit as Emerson, Wilde, Johnson, and Montaigne, and such stylists as Proust, Thoreau, Woolf, and George Eliot—virtuosi of literature, who invariably seemed to find (in Coleridge's phrase) "the best words in the best order" to describe their experience of life. Readers can expect to encounter plenty of old acquaintances, known or half-known or dredged up from the recesses of memory. Where this anthology differs markedly from most others is in the fact that no quotation has been included simply because it is famous. Rather, the criteria are wit, grace, originality, relevance, usefulness, and meaning. What has been avoided are those stock quotations that have ceased to carry their original resonance, whether through over-use, misapplication, or by a sort of process of petrification whereby the great sayings have been sucked of their life and reduced to triteness, cliché, and parody. This has excluded a lot of Shakespearian and Biblical material that over the years has lost its edge, not to mention much bad poetry, hymns and anthems, and snatches of speeches or songs that, while well known and possibly well composed, have ceased to have much impact for us at the end of the twentieth century.

Once the bland, the dull, and the over familiar have been sifted, what remains inevitably displays a tendency towards the caustic and antagonistic: the devil, we find, has the best tunes. The finest art has always run counter to received opinion. Similarly, the most pointed quotations are those that undermine our prejudices. Quotability, not niceness or correctness, is the prime requirement for inclusion in this book. On the other hand, demagogues and politicians, who specialize in a highly quotable verbal style, are represented far less often here than the flow of their words might seem to warrant. They, more than anyone, have long recognized the power of quotations, knowing that opinions can be sanctified by appealing to precedent. Above all they have seized on and exploited the fact that the power also runs the other way, that every time they themselves are quoted, they assume the influence of an oracle. But their objectives are too limited, their themes too unoriginal, their messages too ephemeral. Thus we live in the epoch of the "soundbite"—a new word for an old trick that has nonetheless attained new heights of artifice and superficiality. The more recent examples of this spurious, manufactured species of quotation have not been included in this collection, although some older exponents such as Winston Churchill and Theodore Roosevelt can be found here by virtue of their combined historical importance and fine oratory. Slogans and refrains, however, do not figure in these pages, since they lack any personal quality.

Indeed it is this vital personal ingredient that more than anything defines a quotation. Without it the words are orphaned, and for this reason these pages include the bare minimum number of contributions by the usually ubiquitous Anon. (although proverbs have been included when they evoke a particular time and mode). A true quotation cannot be divorced from the character who uttered or scribbled it; it should say as much about the person quoted as about the particular subject referred to, and for this reason an anthology of quotations should be a kind of portrait gallery. The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations presents as rich a parade of personalities as can be found within the covers of a single book. Here they are, revealed in all their genius and prejudice, goodness and pathos, profundity and absurdity, heroism and evil. Their extracted speeches and writings represent a motley confection of philosophies, ideologies, preoccupations, and temperaments, imprecation, injunction, or insights offering a quotable commentary on the human condition.

Just as an effective quotation is indissolubly bound with the person who created it, so it is inseparable from the spirit and context in which it was originally phrased. A quotation must be authentic or it loses its vigor, and an important feature of this book is the precise citational and contextual information given—more detailed than any previous anthology has provided. It is not enough to quote Jane Austen saying: "Where an opinion is general, it is usually correct." She did not say it, and in all likelihood would have strongly disagreed with the notion. Mary Crawford said it, a character in Austen's Mansfield Park, and the statement loses all its poignancy unless one takes this into account. Likewise, such an immortal remark as "A horse is at least human, for God's sake" is imbued with the unique character of Holden Caulfield, the narrator in J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye: we are detracting from its energy and humor if we omit to mention this. Such details vitalize a quotation, prompting images and memories that express more than the words on their own ever can. In the same way no one should credit Oliver Stone with believing that "Lunch is for wimps." Stone put the words in the mouth of Gordon Gekko, played by Michael Douglas in the 1987 movie Wall Street. This is information we need to know, not only to quote honestly and incisively, but to avoid looking foolish when we learn that the context of the quotation may undermine its message.

It is also instructive to know something of the circumstances in which a quotation first appeared—that, for example, when Oscar Wilde wrote, in De Profundis, "What is said of a man is nothing. The point is, who says it," he was writing to his lover Lord Alfred Douglas following the scandal and trial that ruined Wilde. I have also tried to enhance the interest of certain quotations by drawing attention to others by the same or a different author either in agreement or contradiction. The amount of citational information has been a matter of discretion in each case: essays have rarely required much comment, while letters and journal entries, for example, are enriched by one or two words of context. Characters speaking in fiction and drama are named throughout. Dates of first publication have been given in all cases except plays and short poems, where there is often a distracting discrepancy between dates of composition, performance, and publication. On the whole, information has been given as accurately and concisely as space allows, without succumbing to the temptation to swamp the quotation with extraneous facts. Thus where addressees of letters are little known, their names have been omitted, while if they are members of the writer's family, or have some standing in their own right, they are named. For foreign quotations translation dates are appended with more recent works only, where only one translation exists. Translators are named only when they are considered to be of interest in themselves.

As a rule, the information provided should be sufficient not only to place the quotation in context, but to permit anyone interested to locate the words fairly quickly.

Although accuracy has been a paramount consideration in the reproduction of quotations and citational information, the vagaries of publishing and the existence of variant texts mean that there is always scope for confusion. On the whole, the instances are few in this compilation, although there are a handful of cases in which it is necessary to specify particular editions that have been used. Quotations from Shakespeare have been drawn from the 1987 Oxford University Press edition of the Complete Works, edited by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor, in which the arrangements of acts and scenes can diverge significantly from those in some other editions, notably in the plays Pericles, Hamlet, and King Lear (in King Lear I have followed the Folio text). In quoting from Oscar Wilde, I have gone to the original, four-act edition of The Importance of Being Earnest, later cut to three acts to satisfy theatrical exigencies, in a version which has been subsequently, although unnecessarily, reproduced in many editions. More controversially, quotations from James Joyce's Ulysses are from Hans Walter Gabler's "corrected" text, as published by The Bodley Head and Penguin Books in 1986. And lastly, Biblical quotations are taken from the Authorized, or King James, Version.

To quote is to open a form of dialogue, requiring a degree of receptivity on the part of the hearer or reader. There must be an element of recognition of a truth or sentiment, something that sets bells chiming and thoughts racing down newly remembered tracks. Even when it is a strikingly original notion, a fresh formulation, or a felicitous expression, there is always a reference to something in our own experience without which it is merely words. A quotation does not need to be familiar to trigger this response, but it must evoke in us a sense of familiarity. Whether or not the authors quoted in this collection are known to the reader, I hope that browsing through The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations will provoke the same thought that recurred to me throughout my research on it: interesting—I would like to know more about this person. My greatest hope is that the selection manages to communicate some of the fun I had in compiling it.

       Robert Andrews


Front matter - The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition
Front matter

The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition

Guide to the Dictionary	Guide to the Indo-European Roots

Introduction

Almost a quarter of a century ago a new dictionary bearing the name American Heritage appeared. That book was notable because it did four things and it did them well. It faithfully recorded the language in easily understood definitions. It provided guidance toward accuracy, precision, and grace in the use of English that intelligent people need and seek in a dictionary. It traced, whenever possible, the development of English words to their origins and keyed many to an Appendix of Indo-European Roots. And it presented complex lexical data in a typographically attractive design accented by thousands of photographs and line drawings in spacious margins. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition, builds upon this distinguished, innovative foundation. The pages of the Third Edition, a lexicon of more than 200,000 boldface forms and hundreds of thousands of meanings reflecting the rich and varied texture of American English as it has been used over time by a broad group of educated speakers. This Dictionary is the product of four years of work by 175 contributors. In preparing the Dictionary, our editors have had access to a database containing hundreds of millions of lines of text that could be searched for any word in context.

The A-Z vocabulary, containing more than 16,000 words and meanings new to this Edition, is a comprehensive, detailed record of the language. Use of citations allowed the editors to identify new words and new meanings, identify levels of usage, and select more than 4,000 quoted illustrations from nearly 2,000 sources for use in exemplifying entry words in printed context. The quoted illustrations range from the works of Shakespeare, Pope, and Ruskin to the works of contemporary writers such as Joyce Carol Oates, Joan Didion, John Updike, and Tom Wicker. More than 30,000 nonquoted illustrative examples were also derived from study of the citations. Finally, the citations were used to determine the status of variants. For example, 4,000 electronic citations were accrued for the spelling ambiance and about 2,000 were found for the variant ambience. On the basis of this 2:1 ratio the Dictionary gives ambience as an "unequal," or less frequently occurring, variant of the entry word ambiance.

If language is a reflection of the ethos of the generation speaking it, then the new entries and meanings in this Edition have much to say about us and our time. The great majority of the new words relate to social and life patterns; to the life sciences with an emphasis on health, medicine, genetics, and ecology; and to the physical sciences with an emphasis on computer technology and electronics, physics, and astronomy.

The goal of the Third Edition is to provide the user with comprehension and appreciation of the language in a readable manner. Keeping the needs of the contemporary user in mind, we have presented the central and often the most frequently sought meaning of a word first. The definitions are worded in concise, lucid prose without the specialized terms and abbreviations that make most dictionaries forbidding and confusing.

The Third Edition contains more than 500 notes and comments on matters of grammar, diction, pronunciation, and levels and nuances of usage. Citations were used in identifying new and evolving usage problems, attesting and evaluating the currency of certain usages, studying various levels of usage, and evaluating their sociolinguistic implications. The 173-member Usage Panel, with 75 new members and chaired by Geoffrey Nunberg, a linguist associated with Stanford University, has made an important contribution to the content and direction of the Usage Notes through responses to periodic surveys developed by the Chair and the editors. The Usage Panel of the Third Edition consists chiefly of writers, editors, and scholars, 22 of whom are professors of linguistics or English. Other Panelists occupy distinguished positions in law, diplomacy, government, business, science and technology, medicine, and the arts. Eighteen are recipients of the Pulitzer Prize and one is a Nobel Laureate. These men and women, who reside in 28 states and in Canada and England, are a cross section of today's critical, literary, and scholarly community.

A list of usage issues—old and new—was prepared by the Chair and the editors, and from it the usage program for the Third Edition was developed. Some of the usage issues are entirely new. An example is the Note at world-class. Other issues discussed in previous editions were resurveyed. An example is the use of contact as a verb. In some instances the Panel's views are more conservative than in the past: only 27 percent of the current Panel accepts hopefully as a sentence adverb, a usage that in 1969 was acceptable to 44 percent of the Panel. Other Notes, such as the one that discusses the use of above as a noun, present guidance and linguistic analysis without Panel opinions. The Usage Notes are not confined solely to matters of stylistic excellence. Our concern with usage extends to issues of gender, ethnicity, and sexual preference.

Considerable attention is devoted in this Edition to the history of words. The etymologies have been thoroughly revised and expanded by a group of 25 specialists whose work reflects original scholarly research in many fields, including African, Persian, Turkish, and Native American languages. Special symbols, abbreviations, and complex technical vocabulary have been avoided in the etymologies. More than 400 word history paragraphs, most of which contain dates of first occurrence of the words in English, appear at entries with especially interesting etymologies. These word histories, such as the one at nerd provide a social, historical, and cultural context for the evolution of words and explain the various linguistic processes that contribute to the development of language.

A great many Modern English words can be traced to the reconstructed ancestral language called Proto-Indo-European. The etymologies in the Third Edition, like those in the First, trace many words to their earliest ascertainable origins, usually in Proto-Indo-European, by means of cross-references to new and thoroughly revised Indo-European Root entries. The Indo-European Root entries, in a major departure from previous style, give the root followed by a brief gloss and a list of some of the Modern English words derived from it. The individual roots entry then follows. For example, the Modern English words fierce and treacle, at first glance strange semantic companions, both derive from the root *ghwer-, "wild."

The Third Edition contains hundreds of labeled words and meanings whose occurrence is restricted to certain areas of the United States. An important new feature unique to the Third Edition is the inclusion of more than 100 Regional Notes that explore the various linguistic and historical processes contributing to the development of these terms. These processes are apparent in the Regional Notes at entries such as absquatulate. In an effort to assist the reader in using the language with color, vitality, and freshness, the Third Edition devotes more attention than ever before to synonymy by including more than 900 synonym para- graphs.The fully cross-referenced synonym paragraphs are of two kinds. The first, liberally illustrated with quotations, discriminates shades of meaning. The second kind lists exact synonyms, that is, words sharing a common irreducible element of meaning, and provides antonyms when applicable.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition, like the First, is the product of significant advances in the use of computer technology. The Third Edition is derived from a complex, highly versatile structured database. Every element in the Dictionary was parsed, examined, and coded to reflect its lexical function and position within the base. In combination, these elements form dictionary entries, and on a broader scale they reflect a multitude of relationships across the lexicon.  Use of the database in connection with electronically generated citations places the Third Edition a generation ahead of other dictionaries.

It is no longer possible for a few general editors working strictly within a publishing house to compile a true and accurate record of the language as it is used today. Semantic, etymological, linguistic, and technical complexities inherent in the language require the counsel of specialists from many disciplines. We wish to thank all of them for helping us in our pursuit of accuracy and truth. Special thanks go to John Simpson, Co-Editor of the New Oxford English Dictionary, for valuable comments made during the early stages of the project. And to all members of our Editorial Staff who gave unstintingly of their time and expended great effort in the development of the Third Edition, we express our deepest gratitude.

     Anne H. Soukhanov


Guide to the Indo-European Roots

Go back to Dictionary Front matter

This Dictionary carries the etymology of the English language to its logical and natural conclusion, for if the documentary history of words is of interest and value, so is their reconstructed prehistory. The historical component is given in the etymologies, after the definitions in the Dictionary articles. Indo-European roots supply the prehistoric component, tracing the ultimate Indo-European derivations of those English words that are descended from a selected group of Indo-European roots.

Bookshelf 1996–97 includes each Indo-European root as a separate article listed alphabetically among the definition articles in the Dictionary Table of Contents found on the Contents tab.

In each Indo-European root article, the boldface headword is, unless otherwise identified, an Indo-European root in its basic form. This basic root form is followed by a list of italicized words that are some of its more important Modern English descendants.

The beginning of the article body may list one or more boldface variants of the root preceeded by the word "Also." The rest of the article body provides the basic meaning or meanings of the root.

Meanings that are different parts of speech are separated by a semicolon:

Examples:

kei- · . To lie; bed, couch; beloved, dear.

pel · - · . Flat; to spread.

leg-. To collect; with derivatives meaning to "speak."

After the basic meaning there may appear further information about the phonological shape or nature of the root:

Examples:

skei-. To cut, split. Extension of sek-.

k · mi-. Worm. Rhyme word to *w · mi-, worm (see wer- · ).

p · -. To protect, feed. Contracted from *pa∂-.

l · k-. Body, form; like, same. Germanic root.

Most, but not all, of the additional information is self-explanatory. In the first two examples above, the forms sek- and wer- · are cross-references to those roots, which have their own articles in the Dictionary. In the example p · - the form *pa∂- represents an older root form. (The nature of these contractions is explained in an essay by Calvert Watkins titled "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans" under the section "Speech Sounds and their Alternations." This essay can be found in the back of the print version of The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition.) The articles l · k-, n · hw-iz, and re- are not, strictly speaking, Indo-European, since they are represented in only one branch of the family, but they are each included because of the number of English words among their descendants.

The text of each article describes in detail the development of Modern English words from the root. Each section of an entry begins with a list, in SMALL CAPITALS, of the Modern English words derived from a particular form of the root. The simple (uncompounded) derivatives are given first; the compounds follow, separated from them by a semicolon. Parentheses indicate that the etymology of a word in the main body of the Dictionary contains a cross-reference to the etymology at another entry. In some cases no further semantic or morphological development needs to be explained, and the lemma, the historically attested representative of the root, is immediately given:

Example:

awi-. Bird. I. 1. AVIAN…from Latin avis, bird.

Much more commonly, however, intermediate developments require explanation. These intermediate stages are reconstructions representing a word stem in Indo-European that is necessary to explain the lemma following it. (For more information see the section "Grammatical Forms and Syntax" in an essay by Calvert Watkins titled "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans." This essay can be found in the back of the print version of The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition.) The reconstructed forms are not historically attested; they are preceded by an asterisk (*) to note this fact. Sometimes earlier or later developments of the intermediate forms are given in parentheses, as in the example of st · - below. In these cases the symbol < is used to mean "derived from" and the symbol > is used to mean "developed into." The following terms are used to describe typical morphological processes of Indo-European:

Full-grade form: A form with e-vocalism (the basic form); so identified for descriptive contrast.

O-grade form: A form with o-vocalism:

nek · -t-…O-grade form *nok · -t-.

Zero-grade form: A form with zero-vocalism:

men- · …I. Zero-grade form *mn-.

Lengthened-grade form: A form with lengthened vocalism:

ked-…1. Lengthened-grade form *k · d-.

Secondary full-grade form: A new full-grade form created by inserting the fundamental vowel e in the zero-grade form of an extended root:

st · -…V. Zero-grade extended root *st · - (< *stu∂-).… VI. Secondary full-grade form *steu∂-.

Basic form: The unchanged root; so identified for descriptive contrast.

Suffixed form: A form with one or more suffixes, written with an internal hyphen:

laks-…Suffixed form *laks-o-.

maghu-…Suffixed form *magho-ti-.

mel- · …1. Suffixed (comparative) form *mel-yos-.

Prefixed form: A form with a prefix, written with an internal hyphen:

op-…6.…from prefixed form *co-op-.

Extended form: A form with an extension or enlargement, written without internal hyphens:

pel- · …II. Extended form *pel∂-.

Nasalized form: A form with a nasal infix, written with internal hyphens:

tag-…1. Nasalized form *ta-n-g-.

Reduplicated form: A form prefixed by its own initial consonant followed by a vowel:

segh-…5. Reduplicated form *si-sgh-.

Expressive form: A form with "expressive gemination" (doubling of the final consonant), written without internal hyphens:

gal-…3. Expressive form *gall-.

Compound form: A form compounded with a form of another root, written with internal hyphens:

dem-…3. Compound *dems-pot-.

Shortened form: A form with shortened vocalism:

sy · -…III. Suffix shortened form *syu-men-.

Reduced form: A form with loss of one or more sounds:

ghesor-…Reduced form *ghesr-.

Oldest root form: A root form showing a laryngeal (∂) in a position, typically at the beginning or end of a root, where it is preserved in only a few Indo-European languages, such as Greek or Hittite:

ster- · …3. Oldest root form *∂ster-.

Variant form: A form altered in any way other than those described in the above categories:

deru-…2. Variant form dreu-.

These terms can be combined freely to describe in as much detail as necessary the development from the root to the lemma.

dh · (i)-…1. Suffixed reduced form *dh · -mn · -. FEMALE, FEMININE; EFFEMINATE from Latin f · mina, woman (< "she who suckles").

gere- · …1. Suffixed lengthened-grade form *g · r∂-s-. AGERATUM, GERIATRICS, from Greek g · ras, old age.

pet · -…2. Suffixed (stative) variant zero-grade form *pat- · -. PATENT, PATULOUS, from Latin pat · re, to be open.

In order to emphasize the fact that English belongs to the Germanic branch of Indo-European and give precedence to directly inherited words in contrast to words borrowed from other branches, the intermediate stages in Germanic etymologies are covered in fuller detail. The Common or Proto-Germanic (here called simply Germanic) forms underlying English words are always given. Where no other considerations intervene, Germanic is given first of the Indo-European groups, and Old English is given first within Germanic, although this order of precedence is not rigidly applied.

The final item in most entries is an abbreviated reference, in brackets, to Julius Pokorny's Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (Bern, 1959). This, the standard work of reference and synthesis in the Indo-European field, carries a full range of the actual comparative material on which the roots are reconstructed. The Indo-European root articles present only those aspects of the material that are directly relevant to English. For example, the English word MANY is found at the root menegh-, "copious." This entry describes the transition of the Indo-European form through Germanic *managa- to Old English manig, mænig, "many." It does not cite the evidence on which this assertion is based, but it refers to "Porkorny men(e)gh- 730." The entry men(e)gh- on page 730 in Pokorny's dictionary cites, in addition to the Old English word, the forms attested in Sanskrit, Celtic, Gothic, Old High German, Old Norse, Slavic, and Lithuanian, from which the reconstruction of the root was made. These references should serve as a reminder that the information given in the Indo-European root articles is assertive rather than expository and that the evidence and evaluation upon which its assertions are based are not presented here.


Front matter - Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases
Front matter

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases

The Thesaurus is divided into six Classes. The first three Classes cover the external world: Abstract Relations deals with such ideas as number, order, and time; Space is concerned with movement, shapes and sizes, while Matter covers the physical world and humankind's perception of it by means of the five senses. The last three Classes deal with the internal world of human beings: the human mind (Intellect); the human will (Volition); and the human heart and soul (Emotion, Religion and Morality). There is a logical progression from abstract concepts, through the material universe, to mankind itself, culminating in what Roget saw as humankind's highest achievements: morality and religion.

Roget borrowed his scheme from natural history, with its hierarchy of Phyla, Classes, Orders and Families. His system has also been compared to a tree, with ever smaller ramifications diverging from the main branches. This is a workable way of dividing up human experience, as can be seen from the way Roget's system has survived intact through numerous revisions. But life, as Roget himself points out, is not easily compartmentalized. "Choice," for example, involves both the will (Volition) and the intellect (Intellect). The language that reflects our experience is equally complex, more like a web than a tree, for it interconnects at all points. Also, one word may have many meanings depending on its context. Roget was aware of this problem. His solution was to use copious cross-references to link related groups of words, a method which succeeded in both reflecting the complexity of language and coming to terms with it.

For an overview of Roget's system, click the Outline button. This shows the six Classes, further subdivided into Sections. Each Section deals with a particular aspect of the Class within which it is found. So under Class One, Abstract Relations, we find Sections for Quantity, Order, Time, and so on. The Sections themselves are further subdivided into Heads and Keywords. Under Abstract Relations, in the Section called Time, for instance, there are 35 Heads dealing with, among others, the ideas of Present Time, Past Time, Transience, and Age. (In the Bookshelf Thesaurus, you can see the complete branching of Roget's Plan by clicking the Outline button in the feature barwhen any Thesaurus article is open in the Article window. The Outline breaks down each Class into Sections, Heads, and Keywords.) There are 990 Heads in the present edition, a slight reduction from Roget's original 1,000. It is the Heads that form the basic units of the Thesaurus, and they follow each other in a logical progression. It is a sign of Roget's skill in compiling the Thesaurus that this basic framework has remained virtually intact through edition after edition of the copyright version, of which this is the most recent. The reader should bear in mind that a Head expresses a given idea or ideas; it really does not matter whether you look up a noun, a verb, or an adjective, as once you have found the right Head, all the parts of speech conveying that idea will be available to you.

The Heads themselves are divided into separate articles, grouped together according to their Keyword and part of speech (in parentheses). The Head Hope, for example, has three Keywords that are nouns, two that are adjectives, two that are verbs, one that is an adverb and one that is an interjection. Not all Heads have a full complement of parts of speech, nor are the labels themselves applied too strictly, words and phrases being allocated to the part of speech that most closely describes their function. The Keyword is both a clue to the kind of words found in that article, and also itself part of the vocabulary. It is not a synonym of the words which follow: it was Roget's intention to offer words that express every aspect of an idea, rather than to list the synonyms. It is called the Keyword because it is both the "key" to the rest of the article, and the "open sesame" to the whole Thesaurus, being used to identify the position of other words in the Table of Contents and cross-references.

Within the articles, words are grouped according to their meaning, context, or level of usage (i.e., colloquial, formal, etc.). These groups follow one another in a logical sequence, exploring every aspect of the idea under consideration. By comparing, whether consciously or not, the words and phrases offered, you can now select the most appropriate. It was Roget's expectation that his readers would "recognize" the word they wanted, guided by "an instinctive tact." On this assumption, words having more than one meaning or context are not usually repeated within articles, nor are transitive and intransitive verbs listed separately. Where the right word is not immediately apparent, but an unfamiliar one seems from the context as if it might answer, it is advisable, especially for non-English speakers, to check the American Heritage Dictionary in Bookshelf. Yet more ideas can be obtained by clicking the colored hot words in Bookshelf Thesaurus articles. Each hot word, besides being an item of vocabulary in its own right, is also the Keyword of an article within the given Head. It is also worth consulting the Outline for the Heads before and after the one originally looked up. Most Heads are in pairs, representing the positive and negative aspects of an idea, e.g., Hope and Hopelessness. Sometimes several Heads between them cover an idea—"education" is dealt with in Teaching, Misteaching, Learning, Teacher, Learner, and School.

A few conventions should be explained. These have mainly been designed to avoid repetition and save space. Conjugate forms are often indicated by the use of "etc. adj." For instance, under the Head Content, the article for the Keyword be content shows "be content, -satisfied etc. adj.," suggesting that readers can form further verbs for themselves on the same pattern. Where consecutive expressions use the same word, the phrases may be linked by the word "or", as in "countryman or -woman." Parentheses within the text are occasionally used to clarify the context of a word, as in "dissolve (a marriage)" found in the article for the Keyword not retain. The symbol ™ following a noun indicates a registered trade mark. An "e" in parentheses added to the end of a word means that it is of French origin and requires a final "e" if applied to a woman. "See..." is used to refer the reader to another article within the same Head, where the idea under consideration is dealt with more thoroughly. This often happens where a general article, such as "killing" under the Head Killing: destruction of life, is followed by more specific articles, in this case homicide and slaughter.

Spelling and hyphenation is uniform with Longman dictionaries. It should be born in mind, however, that a living language takes many shapes, and these are not the only correct or permitted orthographies. For the benefit of crossword puzzle enthusiasts and others, alternative current spellings are listed in the Table of Contents for the Bookshelf Thesaurus.

The Table of Contents for the Bookshelf Thesaurus

Once familiar with the Plan of Classification and the Outline, readers will be able to find their own way around the book, and this is certainly the most rewarding method of using the Thesaurus. However, another method of navigation is the Table of Contents.

Where several references are given, choose the most appropriate Keyword. For instance, suppose you need another expression for "feeling happy." Look up happy in the Table of Contents, and you will find a list of Heads and Keywords. The Keywords given include apt and willing which refer to other uses of the word "happy." But the Keywords cheerful and happy are obviously relevant, and looking up those words will offer you an abundance of suitable terms.

Some points to note

1	Items are listed in alphabetical order, whether they are words or phrases.

2	References to the same Head are not always repeated under different grammatical forms of the same word. For example: "abundance" has references to the following Heads: Vegetable life, Diffuseness, Greatness, Increase, Production, Productiveness, Store, Sufficiency, and Redundance, while “abundant” has references to Diffuseness, Greatness, Multitude, Sufficiency, Wealth, and Liberality. This means that the adjective is found in three Heads which do not list the noun form: the idea of "abundance," however, is present in all the Heads listed. It is a good idea to check other forms of the word you are looking up, to obtain the fullest list of references to suitable Heads.

3	General expressions such as "good example," "bad health," "no meaning," and "not mind" have been retained in the Table of Contents as useful guides for the reader.

Roget's Plan of Classification

Dr. Roget divided words and phrases into six main Classes. He then divided the words within each class into Sections.

Class	Section
1. Abstract relations	Existence
	Relation
	Quantity
	Order
	Number
	Time
	Change
	Causation
2. Space	Space in general
	Dimensions
	Form
	Motion
3. Matter	Matter in general
	Inorganic matter
	Organic matter
4. Intellect: the exercise of the mind
Division one:  Formation of ideas	General
	Precursory conditions and operations
	Materials for reasoning
	Reasoning processes
	Results of reasoning
	Extension of thought
	Creative thought
Division two:  Communication of ideas	Nature of ideas communicated
	Modes of communication
	Means of communicating ideas
5. Volition: the exercise of the will
Division one: Individual volition	Volition in general
	Prospective volition
	Voluntary action
	Antagonism
	Results of action
Division two:  Social volition	General social volition
	Special social volition
	Conditional social volition
	Possessive relations
6. Emotion, religion, and morality	General
	Personal emotion
	Interpersonal emotion
	Morality
	Religion


Guide to the Dictionary

Go back to Dictionary Front matter

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third Edition is a record of the language as it is used by a broad and diverse group of educated speakers and writers over the long term. Its word list reflects the many complex elements that constitute our language. This Guide, which explains the conventions used in presenting the great array of information contained in the Dictionary, is intended to enable you to find and understand that information quickly and easily.

THE HEADWORDS: ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Each headword is set in boldface type at the top of the Article window. All entries —including biographical and geographic names, abbreviations, symbols, compounds of two or more words, and Indo-European roots —are listed in strict alphabetical order:

abs.

Absaroka Range

Absaroke

Absarokes

abscess

abscessed

abscesses

abscessing

abscise

abscised

abscises

abscisic acid

abscising

For the sake of convenience, proper names are listed according to their most important element, such as a surname shared by a number of important people. In these cases, the alphabetical sequence applies only to those letters preceding the first comma. For example, "George" comes before "George VI," which in turn comes before "George, Henry."

Superscript numbers. Words with identical spellings but different etymologies are entered separately and have superscript, or raised, numbers. In most cases, these numbers reflect the frequency of use:

tick · (t · k) noun   1. A light, sharp, clicking sound made repeatedly by a machine, such as a clock…[Middle English tek, light tap.]

tick · (t · k) noun   1. Any of numerous small bloodsucking parasitic arachnids of the family Ixodidae, many of which transmit febrile diseases, such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease…[Middle English teke, tik, perhaps from Old English *ticca.]

tick · (t · k) noun   A cloth case for a mattress or pillow. [Middle English tikke, probably from Middle Dutch t · ke, ultimately from Latin thêca, receptacle, from Greek thêkê.]

tick · (t · k) noun   Chiefly British.   Credit or an amount of credit.   [Short for TICKET.]

Note: In the Table of Contents of the Bookshelf Dictionary, entries, such as those above, are listed with the number in parentheses instead of superscript: tick(1), tick(2), tick(3), tick(4).

SYLLABICATION

A headword and its inflected and derived forms are divided into syllables by means of centered dots:

ac·e·tate ( · s · -t · t · ) noun.

In entries, such as ethyl acetate, that consist of two or more words separated by spaces, the words without centered dots are divided into syllables at their own places in the Dictionary.

Pronunciations are syllabicated for the sake of clarity. The syllabication of the pronunciation may not match the syllabication of the headword because the division of the pronunciation follows phonological rules, while the division of the headword reflects the long-established practices of printers and editors in breaking words at the end of a line of text.

PRONUNCIATION

The written pronunciation is enclosed in parentheses and appears after the boldface headword. The audio pronunciation can be played by clicking the audio icon next to the article headword.

If a headword and a variant to that headword have the same pronunciation, the pronunciation is given immediately after the variant. If the variant or variants do not have the same pronunciation as the headword, pronunciations follow the forms to which they apply. Differing or variant pronunciations are given wherever necessary. If an entry or a variant requires more than one pronunciation, subsequent pronunciations show only those syllables that are different in sound quality or stress from the first pronunciation or that are necessary for clarity.

Clicking on any phonetic pronunciation will display the Pronunciation Key.

Pronunciation symbols. The symbols used in this Pronunciation Key enable you to produce a satisfactory pronunciation with no more than a quick reference. All pronunciations given here are acceptable in all circumstances. When more than one pronunciation is given, the first is assumed to be the most common, but the difference in frequency may be insignificant.

For most words a single set of symbols can represent the pronunciation found in each regional variety of American English. You will supply those features of your own regional speech that are called forth by the pronunciation key in this Dictionary. The pronunciations are exclusively those of educated speech.

Explanation of the schwa. Most symbols in the pronunciation key are self-explanatory, but one requires brief discussion. The nonalphabetical symbol ( · ) is called a schwa. It is used in this Dictionary to represent a reduced vowel, a vowel that receives the weakest level of stress within a word. The schwa sound varies, sometimes according to the vowel it is representing and often according to the sounds surrounding it:

sis·ter (s · s · t · r)

a·bun·dant ( · -b · n · d · nt)

Stress. The relative emphasis with which the syllables of a word or phrase are spoken, called stress, is indicated in three different ways. The strongest, or primary, stress is marked with a bold mark ( · ). An intermediate, or secondary, level of stress is marked with a similar but lighter mark ( · ). The weakest stress is unmarked. Words of one syllable show no stress mark.

VARIANTS

Though standardization of English in the United States is more extensive than at any earlier time, many variant spellings and stylings remain in common use. All variants shown in this Dictionary are acceptable in any context unless indicated otherwise by a restrictive label, such as a dialect label. Variants, set in boldface type, are of two kinds: equal and unequal.

Equal variants. The word or joining a headword and its variant form or forms indicates that these forms occur with virtually equal frequency in edited sources, based on our electronic and printed citational evidence:

ar·chae·ol·o·gy or ar·che·ol·o·gy (är · k · - · l · -j · ) noun

Unequal variants. The word also joining a headword and its variant form or forms indicates that the variant form occurs less frequently:

am·bi·ance also am·bi·ence ( · m · b · - · ns, äN-byäNs · ) noun

Variants that are not adjacent to their headwords in alphabetical order are entered as separate cross-references at the appropriate places in the alphabetical word list:

me·di·e·val also me·di·ae·val (m · d · - · v · l, m · d · -) adjective

me·di·ae·val (m · d · - · v · l, m · d · -) adjective   Variant of medieval.

British variants. A number of variants consist of spellings preferred in British English. These variants, such as defence and colour, are labeled Chiefly British. They are entered at their own alphabetical places but are not given at the entries to which they relate:

de·fence (d · -f · ns · ) noun & verb.   Chiefly British.   Variant of defense.

One exception to this general rule has to do with words, such as realize, that end with the suffix -ize. The British spelling ending in -ise is not entered in this Dictionary unless it also commonly occurs in the United States. When a word that has a chiefly British variant occurs in compounds, the variant is not repeated at the compound. For example, the chiefly British variant colour is given for color but not for colorblind, color guard, and other such compounds.

PART-OF-SPEECH LABELS

The following italicized labels indicate parts of speech: adjective, adverb, conjunction, definite article, indefinite article, interjection, noun, preposition, pronoun, verb.

These italicized labels indicate inflected forms: plural  singular

Words such as cattle that occur only in the plural are labeled plural noun.

These italicized labels are used for the traditional classification of verbs: transitive, intransitive, auxiliary.

The labels for word elements are: prefix  suffix.

Entries that are abbreviations, such as A.M. and blvd., are labeled abbreviation or Abbr.  Nouns that are often used to modify other nouns are labeled attributive.

Certain entries do not carry labels. They include contractions, symbols, trademarks, and the word elements  −i− and −o−, which never occur in initial or final position in a word:

I'll ( · l)   1. I will.   2. I shall.

I · The symbol for the element iodine (sense 1).

Walk·man (wôk · m · n · , -m · n)   A trademark used for a pocket-sized audiocassette player, radio, or combined unit with lightweight earphones.

Sometimes a headword fulfills more than one grammatical function. For example, current can be an adjective (current pricing; current negotiations) and a noun (a current of air; the swift current of a river; electric current). In such cases the different parts of speech are defined within a single entry called a combined entry. The shift in grammatical function is indicated by the appropriate part-of-speech label.

If the syllabication or pronunciation differs from one part of speech to another, then the shift in grammatical function is indicated by the part-of-speech label followed by a boldface dash, followed by the boldface headword divided into syllables, followed by the pronunciation in parentheses. Inflected forms are given if necessary and are followed by definitions:

re·bel (r · -b · l · ) intransitive verb   re-belled, re-bel·ling, re-bels.

1. To refuse allegiance to and oppose by force an established government or ruling authority.

2. To resist or defy an authority or a generally accepted convention.

3. To feel or express strong unwillingness or repugnance: She rebelled at the unwelcome suggestion.

noun — reb·el (r · b · l)

One who rebels or is in rebellion: "He is the perfect recruit for fascist movements: a rebel not a revolutionary, contemptuous yet envious of the rich and involved with them"  (Stanley Hoffman).

noun, attributive.

Often used to modify another noun: rebel troops; a rebel army.

INFLECTED FORMS

An inflected form of a word differs from the main entry form by the addition of a suffix or by a change in its base form to indicate grammatical features such as number, person, mood, or tense. In this Dictionary the following inflected forms appear with headwords:

1. Principal parts of all verbs, whether regular or irregular

2. All degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs formed by inflection

3. Irregular plurals of nouns and plurals whose formation might cause a spelling problem

Inflected forms follow the part-of-speech label. They are set in boldface type, divided into syllables, and given pronunciations as necessary.

Principal parts of verbs. The principal parts of verbs are entered in this order: past tense, past participle, present participle, and third person singular present tense. When the past tense and the past participle are identical, one form represents both:

fly · (fl · ) verb   flew (fl · ) flown (fl · n) fly·ing, flies (fl · z)

walk (wôk) verb   walked, walk·ing, walks

Comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives and adverbs whose comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding -er and -est to the unchanged word show these comparative and superlative suffixes immediately after the part-of-speech label:

high (h · ) adjective   high·er, high·est

Irregular comparative and superlative forms are given in full, as in bad, worse, worst.

The existence of -er and -est forms does not preclude the use of more and most with a simple adjective or adverb to express the comparative and superlative degrees. Often the comparative and superlative can be expressed either way, as in cloudier or more cloudy, cloudiest or most cloudy.

Plurals of nouns. Plurals of nouns other than those formed regularly by adding the suffixes -s or -es are shown and labeled plural:

mouse  (mous) noun    plural mice (m · s)

When a noun has a regular and an irregular plural form, both forms appear, with the most common shown first:

a·quar·i·um ( · -kwâr · - · m) noun    plural a·quar·i·ums or a·quar·i·a (- · - · )

Regular plurals are also shown when spelling might be a problem:

ra·di·o (r · d · - · ) noun    plural ra·di·os   Abbr. rad.

hon·ey (h · n · ) noun    plural hon·eys

A noun that is chiefly or exclusively plural in both form and meaning is labeled plural noun.

cat·tle (k · t · l) plural noun    1. Any of various mammals of the genus Bos, including cows, steers, bulls, and oxen, often raised for meat and dairy products.

A noun that is always plural in form but is not necessarily used with a plural verb is labeled like this:

aer·o·bics (â-r · b · ks) noun (used with a sing. or pl. verb).   1. A system of physical conditioning designed to enhance circulatory and respiratory efficiency that involves vigorous, sustained exercise, such as jogging, swimming, or cycling, thereby improving the body's utilization of oxygen.  2. A program of physical fitness that involves such exercise.   [From AEROBIC.]

pol·i·tics (p · l · -t · ks) noun   Abbr. pol., polit    1. (used with a sing. verb).  a. The art or science of government or governing, especially the governing of a political entity, such as a nation, and the administration and control of its internal and external affairs.  Political science.   2. (used with a sing. or pl. verb). a. The activities or affairs engaged in by a government, politician, or political party: "All politics is local" (Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.). "Politics have appealed to me since I was at Oxford because they are exciting morning, noon, and night."  (Jeffrey Archer).

Separate entries for inflected forms. Irregular inflected forms are entered separately in the Dictionary when they occur more than one entry away from the main headword:

men (m · n) noun   Plural of man

went (w · nt) verb   1. Past tense of go

Such entries carry a part-of-speech label and are given pronunciations as necessary.

Inflected forms are not shown at variant spellings that are cross-references to main entries:

par·a·lyse (p · r · -l · z · ) verb   Chiefly British.   Variant of paralyze.

Some verbs, such as do, be, and have, have archaic inflected forms, such as dost, art, and hadst, that occur frequently enough to justify their inclusion in this Dictionary. These forms are also entered separately:

dost (d · st) verb   Archaic.   A second person singular present tense of do · .

LABELS

This Dictionary uses various labels to indicate entries related to particular subject areas, to provide guidance regarding various levels of usage, and to indicate words indigenous to specific geographic areas.

Subject labels. A subject label identifies the special area of knowledge to which a headword or a definition applies:

e·qui·mo·lar ( · kw · -m · l · r, · k · w · -) adjective   Chemistry.   Having an equal number of moles.

tri·mor·phic (tr · -môr · f · k) also tri·mor·phous (-f · s) adjective
1. Biology. Having or occurring in three differing forms.
2. Chemistry. Crystallizing in three distinct forms.

Status labels. Status labels indicate that a headword or a definition is limited to a particular level or style of usage. All words and definitions not restricted by such a label should be regarded as appropriate for use in all contexts.

Non-standard. This, the most restrictive label in the Dictionary, is applied to forms and usages that educated speakers and writers consider unacceptable:

an·y·ways ( · n · -w · z · ) adverb.   Non-Standard.   In any case.

Usage problem. The label Usage Problem warns of possible difficulties involving grammar, diction, and writing style. A word or definition so labeled is discussed in a Usage Note:

snuck (sn · k) verb.   Usage Problem.   A past tense and a past participle of sneak. See Usage Note at sneak.

well·ness (w · l · n · s) noun   Usage Problem. The condition of good physical and mental health, especially when maintained by proper diet, exercise, and habits.  noun, attributive  Usage Problem. Often used to modify another noun: wellness programs; a wellness clinic.
Usage Note: It can be argued that wellness serves a useful function as a means of describing a state that includes not just physical health but fitness and emotional well-being. The word is first recorded in 1654 but has never been given the acceptance of its antonym illness. In the most recent survey 68 percent of the Usage Panel found the word unacceptable in the sentence A number of corporations have implemented employee wellness programs, aimed at enhancing spiritual values, emotional stability, fitness, and nutrition.

Offensive. This label is reserved for words and expressions such as racial, ethnic, or gender slurs that are not only derogatory and insulting to the person to whom they are directed but also a discredit to the one using them. This label may occur alone or in combination as Offensive Slang.

Vulgar. This label warns of social taboos attached to a word; it may appear alone or in combination as Vulgar Slang.

Obscene. A word that violates accepted standards of decency carries the label Obscene.

Slang. This label indicates a style of language that is distinguished by a striving for rhetorical effect through the use of extravagant, often facetious figures of speech. Slang either dies out or is eventually incorporated into the standard language as its rhetorical effect is lost. Some forms of slang occur in most cultivated speech but not in formal discourse. An example of a word labeled Slang is:

white-knuck·le (hw · t · n · k · l, w · t · -) adjective   Slang.   Characterized by tense nervousness or apprehension: a white-knuckle emergency landing; white-knuckle time in the hospital waiting room.

Informal. Those whose speech is standard use not only the language of formal discourse but also the language of conversation. The great majority of words are acceptable at both levels, though many words that are acceptable in conversation with friends and colleagues would be unsuitable in the formal prose of an article written for publication in the journal of a learned society, for example. An example of an entry labeled Informal is:

wish list  noun.   Informal.   An often mental list of things wanted.

Temporal labels. Temporal labels. such as Archaic and Obsolete, signal words or senses whose use in modern English is uncommon.

Archaic. The label Archaic is applied to words and senses that once were common but are now rare, though they may be familiar because of their occurrence in certain contexts, such as the literature of an earlier time. Specifically, this label is attached to headwords and senses for which there is only sporadic evidence in print after 1755:

en·ter·tain·ment ( · n · t · r-t · n · m · nt) noun   …5. Archaic. Maintenance; support.   6. Obsolete. Employment.

Obsolete.  The label Obsolete is used with headwords and senses no longer in active use, except, for example, in literary quotations. Specifically, this label is attached to headwords and senses for which there is little or no printed evidence since 1755. Sense 6 of entertainment above is an example.

English-language labels. This Dictionary contains a number of labels noting the restriction of particular headwords and senses to specific areas of the English-speaking world. Among them is Chiefly British, which acknowledges that words are seldom restricted exclusively to the British or American vocabulary and in fact are often in use elsewhere in the world, as in New Zealand. Here is a typical example of a word labeled Chiefly British:

win·kle · (w · ng · k · l) verb, transitive   win·kled, win·kling, win·kles   Chiefly British.   To pry, extract, or force from a place or position. Often used with out.

Other English-language labels are: Australian, Irish, Canadian, Scots, Caribbean, South African

Dialect labels. When a word or sense is commonly used in a specific area of the United States and little used—even if known—in other areas, it has been given a dialect label.

This Dictionary uses dialect labels singly and in various combinations ranging from the very general (Regional) to the very specific (Cincinnati). The very specific labels, which are self-explanatory, serve as descriptors of geographic regions such as cities, states, and interstate areas.

Major areas of distribution. Major, generalized areas of dialect distribution are labeled as follows and can occur in any number of combinations:

Northern U.S. - from New Jersey and Pennsylvania north to New England and west to Washington and Oregon.

Southern U.S. - from southern Maryland along the coastal plains of Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana to eastern Texas and also including the "Upper South" as defined in the section "Midwestern and Midland."

Eastern U.S. - the Atlantic states from Maine to Florida, also including Vermont, New Hampshire, and upstate New York.

Western U.S. - west of the 100th parallel, which extends southward from the Dakotas to western Oklahoma and Texas.

Subcategories of distribution. Within the major areas are these subcategories, the labels for which also can occur in various combinations:

For the north:

New England - Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.

Northeastern U.S. - New England, New York State, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

Upper Northern or Inland Northern U.S. - western upstate New York; northwest Pennsylvania; northern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; Michigan; Wisconsin; and Minnesota.

Lower Northern or North Midland U.S. - southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania; northern Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia; Ohio; Indiana; Illinois; Iowa; and Nebraska.

Upper Midwest - Minnesota, Iowa, North and South Dakota, and Nebraska.

Northwestern U.S. or Pacific Northwest - Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.

For the south:

Southeastern U.S. - North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi.

Upper Southern or South Midland U.S. - southern Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; western Virginia and North Carolina; northern Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana; Tennessee; Kentucky; Arkansas; and eastern Oklahoma.

Lower Southern U.S. - Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and eastern Texas.

Eastern Lower Southern or South Atlantic U.S. - North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

For the east:

Central Atlantic U.S. - Delaware; Washington, D.C.; eastern Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania; and southern New Jersey.

North Atlantic Coast - Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, southeast New York State, and northern New Jersey.

For the west:

Southwestern U.S. - Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California.

Midwestern and Midland.  In addition to the labels just described, two labels are used that overlap with but lie outside the overall scheme. Midwestern U.S. designates regional terms that occur throughout the area from Michigan westward to the Dakotas and from Ohio westward to Kansas, an area that includes parts of several dialect areas. Midland U.S., a term previously used in American dialect geography, includes the Lower North and the Upper South. The collective label Midland is distinguished from Midwestern, which does not include the South. Two Midland words are Indian turnip for jack-in-the-pulpit and Italian for submarine.

Gullah. The label Gullah refers not to a region but to the distinctive dialect of English spoken by American Black people who live on the coast and coastal islands of Georgia, South Carolina, and northern Florida.

CROSS-REFERENCES

A cross-reference signals that additional information about one entry can be found at another entry. Cross-references have two main functions: to avoid needless duplication of information and to indicate where further discussion of a word occurs. Cross-references are hot, so clicking on the word will jump you to the cross-referenced article.

The entry referred to is preceded by a brief descriptive or instructional phrase, and is colored as jump text.

bade (b · d, b · d) verb,   A past tense of bid.

The cross-reference indicates that bade is a past tense at the entry bid, where further information about the entry can be found.

The word See is also used to introduce certain cross-references:

feath·er·edge (f · th · r- · j · ) noun   …2. See deckle edge.

A full definition is given at the entry referred to, in this case deckle edge. At the end of the definition of deckle edge the phrase Also called appears followed by one or more words, here, featheredge, that have the same meaning:

deckle edge noun   The rough edge of handmade paper formed in a deckle. Also called featheredge.

ORDER OF SENSES

Entries containing more than one sense are arranged for the convenience of contemporary dictionary users with the central and often the most commonly sought meanings first. Senses and subsenses are grouped to show their relationships with each other. For example, in the entry for fatal shown below, the commonly sought meaning "Causing or capable of causing death" appears first and the now obsolete sense "Having been destined; fated" comes last in the series of five:

fa·tal (f · t · l) adjective   1. Causing or capable of causing death.
...5. Obsolete. Having been destined; fated.

Electronic and printed citations have been used to determine how all words should be defined.

Division of senses. Boldface letters before senses indicate that two or more subsenses are closely related:

phe·nom·e·non (f · -n · m · e-n · n · , -n · n) noun   plural phe·nom·e·na (-n · )   1.   … 2. plural phe·nom·e·nons a. An unusual, significant, or unaccountable fact or occurrence; a marvel. b. A remarkable or outstanding person; a paragon. See Synonyms at wonder.
3. Philosophy. a. That which appears real to the mind, regardless of whether its underlying existence is proved or its nature understood. b. In Kantian philosophy, the appearance of an object to the mind as opposed to its existence in and of itself, independent of the mind.

In a combined entry the senses are numbered in separate sequences after each part of speech:

ber·ry (b · r · ) noun   plural ber·ries   1. a. Botany. An indehiscent fruit derived from a single ovary and having the whole wall fleshy, such as the grape or tomato. b. A small, juicy, fleshy fruit, such as a blackberry or raspberry, regardless of its botanical structure.
2. The small, dark egg of certain crustaceans or fishes.

verb, intransitive   ber·ried, ber·ry·ing, ber·ries   1. To hunt for or gather berries: went berrying in July.   2. To bear or produce berries.

Information applicable only to a particular sense or subsense is shown after the number or letter of that sense or subsense:

ra·dix (r · d · ks) noun   plural rad·i·ces (r · d · -s · z · , r · d · -) or ra·dix·es   1. Biology. A root or point of origin.   2. Abbr. rad. Mathematics. The base of a system of numbers, such as 2 in the binary system and 10 in the decimal system.

In this entry the subject label Biology applies only to the first sense. The subject label Mathematics and the abbreviation rad. apply only to the second sense. The same principles hold with respect to information about capitalization and plural use:

lam·en·ta·tion (l · m · n-t · sh · n) noun

1. The act of lamenting.

2. A lament.

3. Lamentations (used with a sing. verb) Abbr. Lam., Lm Bible.

In this entry the form Lamentations at sense 3 indicates that only the capitalized plural form is used to refer to the biblical book. The usage label used with a sing. verb means that this form, with this meaning, is used only with a singular verb. The abbreviations Lam. and Lm and the subject label Bible apply only to sense 3.

Labels and other information applicable to all senses in an entry with more than one part of speech appear before the first part of speech in that entry:

kedge (k · j) Nautical. noun   A light anchor used for warping a vessel.

verb   kedged, kedg·ing, kedg·es verb, transitive   To warp (a vessel) by means of a light anchor.

verb, intransitive To move by means of a light anchor.

The positioning of the label Nautical before the noun part-of-speech label, the first such label in the entry, indicates that Nautical applies to the entire combined entry-in this case, the noun and the verb.

SPECIAL WORDING OF SOME DEFINITIONS

Information that is essential to the accurate presentation of a meaning of a word is included in a phrasal definition. In certain instances, however, the defining language varies.

Full-sentence expanders. Supplementary information is sometimes included in a full sentence after the phrasal definition if, on the basis of citational and other evidence, it is considered to be of special import:

me·ter · (m · t · r) noun   Abbr. m   The international standard unit of length, approximately equivalent to 39.37 inches. It was redefined in 1983 as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

Explanatory notes. Words whose meanings do not permit standard definitions have explanatory notes, beginning with Used or Often used. Words requiring notes of this kind include function words, interjections, intensives, some auxiliary verbs, and words labeled Offensive and Offensive Slang. An example is the explanatory note at the interjection ugh:

Used to express horror, disgust, or repugnance.

ATTRIBUTIVES

It has long been a characteristic feature of English that nouns, like adjectives, can be used to modify other nouns. Nouns used in this way are labeled attributives in this Dictionary. An attributive is a word that freely occurs as a modifier of a broad group of other nouns, does not undergo comparison in the manner of true adjectives, cannot be modified by very, and does not regularly occur in the predicate after be.

Attributives are included as subsections of some noun entries. Verbal illustrations exemplify typical contexts of their usage:

gas (g · s) noun   plural gas·es or gas·ses   1.  a. The state of matter distinguished from the solid and liquid states by relatively low density and viscosity, relatively great expansion and contraction with changes in pressure and temperature, the ability to diffuse readily, and the spontaneous tendency to become distributed uniformly throughout any container. b. A substance in the gaseous state.
2.  A gaseous fuel, such as natural gas. 3. Gasoline.   4. The speed control of a gasoline engine: Step on the gas.   5. A gaseous asphyxiant, irritant, or poison.   6. A gaseous anesthetic, such as nitrous oxide.   7. a. Flatulence. b. Flatus.   8. Slang. Idle or boastful talk.   9. Slang. Someone or something exceptionally exciting or entertaining: The party was a gas. noun, attributive  Often used to modify another noun: gas tanks; gas stoves.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

In this Dictionary there are tens of thousands of illustrative examples, of which more than 4,000 are quoted from over 2,000 separate sources. These illustrative examples, which follow the definitions and are set in italic type, show the headwords in typical contexts. The examples are taken from our files of electronic and printed citations showing patterns of word usage by a broad group of educated speakers in a wide array of publications. Such examples are especially helpful in showing changing usage, attesting to the existence of new words and meanings, illustrating transi- tive and intransitive verbs, revealing figurative uses of words, and exemplifying levels and styles of usage. Here are some instances of the use of quoted illustrations:

self-con·fi·dence (s · lf · k · n · f · -d · ns) noun   Confidence in oneself or one's own abilities: "Without self-confidence we are as babes in the cradle" (Virginia Woolf).

wis·dom (w · z · d · m) noun   1. Understanding of what is true, right, or lasting; insight: "One cannot have wisdom without living life" (Dorothy McCall).   2. Common sense; good judgment: "It is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things" (Henry David Thoreau).

Illustrative examples that are not direct quotations appear in entries such as the verb speak:

speak (sp · k) verb   spoke (sp · k) spo·ken (sp · k · n) speak·ing, speaks verb, intransitive   … 4. a. To make a statement in writing: The biography speaks of great loneliness. b. To act as spokesperson: spoke for the entire staff.   5. a. To convey a message by nonverbal means: Actions speak louder than words. b. To be expressive: spoke with her eyes. c. To be appealing: His poetry speaks to one's heart.

PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is an expression consisting of a verb and an adverb or a preposition with a unitary meaning that cannot be deduced from the sum total of the meanings of its constituent parts. Phrasal verbs, set in boldface type and introduced by the heading phrasal verbs, follow the main definitions and precede the idioms, if any are present. Phrasal verbs are listed in alphabetical order:

set (s · t) verb   set, set·ting, sets verb, transitive   1. To put in a specified position; place: set a book on a table.

... —phrasal verb.
set about   To begin or start: set about solving the problem.
set apart   1. To reserve for a specific use.   2. To make noticeable: character traits that set her apart.
set aside   1. To separate and reserve for a special purpose.   2. To discard or reject.
3. To declare invalid; annul or overrule: The court has set aside the conviction.
set at   To attack or assail: The 13 dogs set at the fox.
set back   1. To slow down the progress of; hinder.   2. Informal.. To cost: That coat set me back $1,000.
set by   To reserve for future use: It is wise to set food and money by in case of a future emergency.

IDIOMS

An idiom is an expression consisting of two or more words having a meaning that cannot be deduced from the sum total of the meanings of its constituent parts. Idioms, set in boldface type and introduced by the heading idioms, are fully defined in the last part of an entry. Idioms are listed in alphabetical order:

take (t · k) verb   took (t · k) tak·en (t · k · n) tak·ing, takes verb, transitive   1. To get into one's possession by force, skill, or artifice...
 — idiom.   on the take Informal. Taking or seeking to take bribes or illegal income: "There were policemen on the take" (Scott Turow).   take a bath Informal. To experience serious financial loss: "Small investors who latched on to hot new issues took a bath in Wall Street" (Paul A. Samuelson).   take account of To take into consideration.   take away from  To detract: Her stringy hair takes away from her lovely face.   take care To be careful: Take care or you will slip on the ice.   take care of To assume responsibility for the maintenance, support, or treatment of.   take charge To assume control or command.

ETYMOLOGIES

Etymologies appear in square brackets following the definitions. An etymology traces the history of a word from one language to another as far back in time as can be determined with reasonable certainty. The most recent stage before Modern English is given first, with each earlier stage following in sequence:

cab·in (k · b · n) noun   1. A small, roughly built house; a cottage   [Middle English caban, from Old French cabane, from Old Provençal cabana, from Late Latin capanna.]

A language name, linguistic form, and brief definition, or gloss, of that form are given for each stage of the derivation. In order to avoid redundancy, however, a language, form, or gloss is not repeated if it is identical to the corresponding item in the immediately preceding stage. In the example shown for cabin, the different Middle English, Old French, and Late Latin forms have the same gloss, which is the same as the first definition of the Modern English word cabin: "small, roughly built house".

Content of etymologies. The etymologies in this Dictionary are designed to be as readable as possible. They rarely use abbreviations, symbols, or highly technical terms. The traditional language of descriptive grammar is used to identify parts of speech and various grammatical and morphological forms and processes, such as diminutive, frequentative, variant, stem, past participle, and metathesis. All of these terms are fully defined entries in the Dictionary. Likewise, every language that is cited in an etymology is either a Dictionary entry or is glossed in the etymology itself.

Sometimes a stage in the history of the word is not attested, yet there is reasonable certainty from comparative evidence about what the missing linguistic form looked like and what language it belonged to. These unattested forms are preceded by an asterisk indicating their hypothetical nature:

cer·tain (sûr · tn) adjective
1. Definite; fixed: set aside a certain sum each week.
2. Sure to come or happen; inevitable: certain success.
3. Established beyond doubt or question; indisputable: What is certain is that every effect must have a cause  … [Middle English, from Old French, from Vulgar Latin *cert · nus, from Latin certus, past participle of cernere, to determine.]

If a word is taken from the name of a person or place, such names are identified with pertinent information as to time or place. The etymology usually stops there, although a further etymology of the name itself is occasionally given.

Some words are not given etymologies. These include interjections, trademarks, and ethnic names that are Anglicizations of the group's name for itself. A large and important group of words not given explicit etymologies consists of compounds and derivatives, such as sodium chloride, emergence, and euploid, formed in English from words or word elements that are themselves entries in the Dictionary. If only a portion of an entry is used in an etymology, the unused portion of the entry is enclosed within parentheses:

bal·lis·to·car·di·o·gram (b · -l · s · t · -kär · d · - · -gr · m · ) noun   A recording made by a ballistocardiograph. [BALLIST(IC) + CARDIOGRAM.]

Derivatives such as emergence, from emerge, in which only the final vowel of one constituent has been deleted, are assumed to be sufficiently understandable not to need etymologies.

Style of etymologies. The etymologies present a great deal of complex information in a small space, and for this reason certain typographic and stylistic conventions are used. The word from indicates origin of any kind-by inheritance, borrowing, derivation, or composition. When a compound word is split into its component elements, a colon introduces them. Each element is traced in turn to its further origins. Parentheses enclose the further history of a part of a compound:

pseud·e·pig·ra·pha (s · d · -p · g · r · -f · ) plural noun   1. Spurious writings, especially writings falsely attributed to biblical characters or times.   2. A body of texts written between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200 and spuriously ascribed to various prophets and kings of Hebrew Scriptures.   [Greek, from neuter pl. of pseudepigraphos, falsely ascribed : pseud · s, false. See PSEUDO- + epigraphein, to inscribe (epi-, epi- + graphein, to write).]

At times it is necessary to cross-refer from one etymology to another, either to avoid repeating part of a lengthy and complex derivation or to indicate the close relationship between two different Modern English words:

bat³ (b · t) verb, transitive   bat·ted, bat·ting, bats   To wink or flutter: bat one's eyelashes. [Probably a variant of BATE².]

A word or word element in an etymology printed in small capitals is an entry in the Dictionary and should be referred to for more etymological information. Linguistic forms that are not Modern English words appear in italics, and glosses and language names appear in roman type.

The transliterations of Greek, Russian, Arabic, and Hebrew are as shown in tables in the article for alphabet. Old English thorn (ρ) and edh (σ) are both given as th, whereas Old Norse thorn is spelled as th and the phonemically distinct edh as dh. In Latin all long vowels are marked with macrons. Mandarin Chinese forms are given in the Pinyin system. The transcription of African and Native American languages occasionally requires the use of symbols-usually drawn from the International Phonetic Alphabet-whose values will be apparent to specialists but are not discussed here.

UNDEFINED FORMS

At the end of many entries additional boldface words appear without definitions—words either formed from the headwords by the addition of suffixes or otherwise closely and clearly related to the headwords. These run-on entries are related in basic meaning to the headword but have different grammatical functions, as indicated by their part-of-speech labels. Multisyllabic run-ons are divided into syllables and show primary and secondary stresses as needed. Pronunciations are included as required:

ex·cuse ( · k-sky · z · ) verb, transitive   ex·cused, ex·cus·ing, ex·cus·es   … [Middle English excusen, from Old French excuser, from Latin exc · s · re : ex-, ex- + causa, accusation. See cause.] — ex·cus · a·ble adjective   — ex·cus · a·ble·ness noun

— ex·cus · a·bly adverb   — ex·cus · er noun

Undefined run-ons are usually entered in alphabetical order. However, when different run-ons have the same grammatical function and the same meaning, they are separated by a comma and share a single part-of-speech label. For instance, at the entry lampoon the variants lampooner and lampoonist have the same meaning and function and are therefore run on together:

lam·poon (l · m-p · n · ) noun   … [French lampon, perhaps from lampons, let us drink (from a common refrain in drinking songs), first person pl. imperative of lamper, to gulp down, of Germanic origin.] — lam·poon · er or lam·poon · ist noun   —lam·poon · er·y noun

In other instances, undefined run-ons have the same grammatical function but different meanings. These appear separately, as is the case with excusableness and excuser at the entry excuse.

In some cases a headword appears unchanged as a run-on at the end of that entry with a different part-of-speech label. This indicates that the word is related in basic meaning to the headword but has a different grammatical function.

SYNONYM PARAGRAPHS

Synonyms of special interest are listed after the entry for the central word in the group. Synonym paragraphs are introduced by the heading Synonyms. There are two kinds of synonym paragraphs. The first consists of a group of undiscriminated, alphabetically ordered words sharing a single, irreducible meaning. Antonyms, if applicable, appear at the end of the paragraph, as seen at the entry for the adjective plentiful:

Synonyms: plentiful, abundant, ample, copious, plenteous. The central meaning shared by these adjectives is "being fully as much as one needs or desires": a plentiful supply of stationery; her abundant talent; ample space; copious provisions; a plenteous crop of wheat.

Antonyms: scant.

The second kind, exemplified at the adjective entry real · , consists of fully discriminated synonyms ordered in a way that reflects their interrelationship. A brief sentence explaining the initial point of comparison of the words is given, followed by explanations of connotations and varying shades of meaning:

Synonyms: real, actual, true, existent. These adjectives are compared as they mean not imaginary but having verifiable existence. Real implies that something is genuine or authentic or that what it seems or purports to be tallies with fact: Don't lose the bracelet; it's made of real gold. My mother showed real sympathy for my predicament. "The general, in a well-feigned or real ecstasy, embraced him" (William Hickling Prescott). Actual means existing and not merely potential or possible: "rocks, trees …the actual world" (Henry David Thoreau); "what the actual things were which produced the emotion that you experienced" (Ernest Hemingway). True implies that something is consistent with fact, reality, or the actual state of things: "It is undesirable to believe a proposition when there is no ground whatever for supposing it true" (Bertrand Russell). Existent applies to what has life or being: Much of the beluga caviar existent in the world is found in the Soviet Union and Iran. See also Synonyms at authentic

In both kinds of paragraphs the synonyms are set in lightface italic type. Illustrative examples, many of them quoted, exemplify the use of the synonyms in context.

Synonym cross-references. Every synonym in a synonym paragraph is itself cross-referenced to that synonym paragraph. For instance, the word true is discussed in the synonym paragraph at the entry real. Therefore, definition 1a of the entry true —the definition directly tied in with the synonym paragraph at real —contains a cross-reference to the synonym paragraph at real:

true (tr · ) adjective tru·er, tru·est  1. a. Consistent with fact or reality; not false or erroneous. See Synonyms at real · .

Sometimes a word is discussed in more than one synonym paragraph. Cross-references are given to all the synonym paragraphs that include this word. An example is unaffected, which appears in synonym paragraphs at both naive and sincere:

un·af·fect·ed ( · n · -f · k · t · d) adjective   1. Not changed, modified, or affected.
2. Marked by lack of affectation; genuine. See Synonyms at naive, sincere.

At times the headword central to one synonym group is a synonym in a group of synonyms at another entry. Such is the case with the entry real. At the end of the synonym paragraph at real, a cross-reference directs you to another synonym paragraph at the entry authentic.

USAGE NOTES

Usage Notes following many entries present important information and guidance on matters of grammar, diction, pronunciation, and registers and nuances of usage.

Some Notes, such as the one at world-class, contain opinions of the Usage Panel:

world-class (wûrld · kl · s · ) adjective   1. Ranking among the foremost in the world; of an international standard of excellence; of the highest order: a world-class figure skater.      2. Usage Problem. Great, as in importance, concern, or notoriety.

Usage Note: The adjective world-class became current as a result of its original use to describe athletes capable of performing at an international level of competition, as in A ten-second time would put him in the first rank of world-class sprinters. In recent years it has been extended to mean "of an international standard of excellence" and has been applied to a wide variety of categories. When used of things that naturally admit such comparison, the extended use of the word is generally acceptable to the Usage Panel. In the most recent survey 65 percent accepted the description world-class restaurant, and 53 percent accepted world-class sports car. But the expression is not generally accepted as a vague way of emphasizing magnitude or degree. The sentence Johann Sebastian Bach's 300th birthday will rank as a world-class anniversary was acceptable to only 7 percent, and only 4 percent accepted a newspaper's description of AIDS as a world-class tragedy.

An example of a Usage Note without an opinion of the Usage Panel is found at the entry criterion:

Usage Note: Like the analogous etymological plurals agenda and data, criteria is widely used as a singular form. Unlike them, however, it is not yet acceptable in that use.

Usage Note cross-references. A Note containing information related to the content of another Note ends with a cross-reference:

well · (w · l) adverb bet·ter (b · t · r) best (b · st)
...Usage Note: Used as an adjective applied to people, well usually refers to a state of health, whereas good has a much wider range of senses. It has always been a first principle of grammatical criticism that there should be no difference without a distinction, and perhaps for this reason, some critics have insisted that the expression feel good cannot be used in reference to health. It is true that there is a distinction between feel well and feel good, but both can be applied to a state of health. Thus a patient suffering from a chronic disease might appropriately say to a doctor I feel good today, which implies a relative lack of physical discomfort. By contrast, I feel well today would be appropriate if the patient believes that the ailment has disappeared. See Usage Note at good.

The Note at well · concludes with a cross-reference to related information in the Note at the entry good. Similarly, the Note at good concludes with a cross-reference to the Note at well · :

good (g · d) Abbr. gd., G, G. adjective bet·ter (b · t · r) best (b · st)
...Usage Note: Good is properly used as an adjective with linking verbs such as be, seem, or appear: The future looks good. The soup tastes good. It should not be used as an adverb with other verbs: The car runs well (not good). Thus, The dress fits well and looks good. See Usage Note at well

If an entry without a Note is discussed in a Note elsewhere, that entry contains a cross-reference to the Note where a full discussion is to be found. For example, the entry -ess contains a Usage Note. The content of this Note has direct bearing on the use of the word stewardess. Consequently, the entry stewardess has a cross-reference directing the reader to the Note at -ess:

stew·ard·ess (st · r-d · s, sty · -) noun   A woman flight attendant.   See Usage Note at -ess.

REGIONAL NOTES

This Dictionary contains hundreds of words and meanings whose occurrence is restricted to certain areas of the United States. Many entries contain Regional Notes explaining in detail a point of dialect. For example, the word dragonfly is widespread in American English, but dialect terms for the insect abound. These dialect terms, listed at the entry for dragonfly, are discussed in the Regional Note at the end of the entry:

drag·on·fly (dr · g · n-fl · ) noun   plural drag·on·flies   Any of various large insects of the order Odonata or suborder Anisoptera, having a long slender body and two pairs of narrow, net-veined wings that are usually held outstretched while the insect is at rest. Also called Regional. darning needle Regional. devil's darning needle Regional. ear sewer Regional. mosquito hawk Regional. skeeter hawk Regional. snake doctor Regional. snake feeder Regional. spindle.

Regional Note: Regional terms for the dragonfly are numerous, providing good evidence for dialect boundaries in the United States. The greatest variety of terms is to be found in the South, where the most widespread term is snake doctor (a name based on a folk belief that dragonflies take care of snakes). The Midland equivalent is snake feeder. Speakers from the Lower South, on the other hand, are more likely to refer to the same insect as a mosquito hawk or, in the South Atlantic states, a skeeter hawk. The imagery outside the South alludes more to the insect's shape than to its behavior or diet: Upper Northern speakers call it a darning needle or a devil's darning needle; those in Coastal New Jersey, a spindle; and Northern Californians, an ear sewer.

Regional Note cross-references. Regional Notes are fully cross-referenced. In the case of snake doctor, a term appropriately labeled to reflect its use in the South, the entry contains two cross-references—a "See" cross-reference directing the reader to the main entry at dragonfly, where the full definition and a list of synonymous terms are found, and a "Regional Note" cross-reference directing the reader to the Regional Note at dragonfly for full discussion of the distribution of these terms:

snake doctor noun   1. Chiefly Southern U.S.  .See dragonfly. See Regional Note at dragonfly.   2. See hellgrammite.

WORD HISTORIES

In addition to etymologies, which necessarily contain information in a compressed form, this Dictionary provides word history paragraphs at entries whose etymologies are of particular interest. In these paragraphs the bare facts of the etymology are expanded to give a fuller understanding of how important linguistic processes operate, how words move from one language to another, and how the history of an individual word can be related to historical and cultural developments. For example, the history of the word alligator involves borrowing from Spanish into English, as its etymology reveals, but the word history also describes the role of taboo deformation in the history of the word alligator and in that of crocodile as well. Usually the word history also contains the date at which the word was first recorded in English:

al·li·ga·tor ( · l · -g · t · r) noun   1. Either of two large reptiles, Alligator mississipiensis of the southeast United States or A. sinensis of China, having sharp teeth and powerful jaws. They differ from crocodiles in having a broader, shorter snout.   2. Leather made from the hide of one of these reptiles.   3. A tool or fastener having strong, adjustable, often toothed jaws. noun, attributive Often used to modify another noun: an alligator pond; an alligator handbag.   [Alteration of Spanish el lagarto, the lizard : el, the (from Latin ille, that) + lagarto, lizard (from Latin lacertus).

Word History: In The Travailes of an Englishman, published in 1568, Job Hortop says that "in this river we killed a monstrous Lagarto or Crocodile." This killing gives rise to the first recorded instance of alligator in English, obviously in a different form from the one familiar to modern speakers. Alligator, which comes to us from Spanish el lagarto, "the lizard," was modified in pronunciation and form in several ways before taking on the form alligator. Such changes, referred to by linguists as taboo deformation, are not uncommon in a name for something that is feared and include, for example, the change in sequence of the r and t that occurred between el lagarto and alligator. An interesting parallel case is crocodile, which appears in Spanish, for example, as cocodrilo, with a similar difference in the sequence of the r. The earliest recorded form of alligator that is similar to ours appears in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet (First Folio, 1623): "In his needie shop a tortoyrs hung,/An Allegater stuft."

Yet another example showing how the facts of etymology are expanded in a word history paragraph to give the reader a better understanding of the historical and social forces shaping word and sense development is found at the entry holocaust, where meaning, usage, and history are clearly delineated by the definitions, the Usage Note, and the word history paragraph:

hol·o·caust (h · l · -kôst · , h · l · -) noun   1. Great or total destruction, especially by fire.   2. a. Widespread destruction. b. A great disaster.   3. a. Holocaust. The genocide of European Jews and others by the Nazis during World War II: "Israel emerged from the Holocaust and is defined in relation to that catastrophe" (Emanuel Litvinoff). b. A massive slaughter: "an important document in the so-far sketchy annals of the Cambodian holocaust" (Rod Nordland).   4. A sacrificial offering that is consumed entirely by flames.   [Middle English, burnt offering, from Old French holocauste, from Latin holocaustum, from Greek holokauston, from neuter of holokaustos, burnt whole : holo-, holo- + kaustos, burnt (from kaiein, to burn). — hol · o·caus · tal or hol · o·caus · tic adjective

Usage Note: When referring to the massive destruction of human beings by other human beings, holocaust has a secure place in the language. Fully 99 percent of the Usage Panel accepts the use of holocaust in the phrase nuclear holocaust. Sixty percent accepts the sentence As many as two million people may have died in the holocaust that followed the Khmer Rouge takeover in Cambodia. But because of its associations with genocide, extended applications of holocaust may not always be received with equanimity. When the word is used to refer to death brought about by natural causes, the percentage of the Panel's acceptance drops sharply. Only 31 percent of the Panel accepts the sentence In East Africa five years of drought have brought about a holocaust in which millions have died. Just 11 percent approved the use of holocaust to summarize the effects of the AIDS epidemic. This suggests that other figurative usages such as the huge losses in the Savings and Loan holocaust may be viewed as overblown or in poor taste.

Word History: Totality of destruction has been central to the meaning of holocaust since it first appeared in Middle English in the 14th century and referred to the biblical sacrifice in which a male animal was wholly burnt on the altar in worship of God. Holocaust comes from Greek holokauston (that which is completely burnt"), which was a translation of Hebrew ôlâ (literally "that which goes up," that is, in smoke). In this sense of "burnt sacrifice," holocaust is still used in some versions of the Bible. In the 17th century the meaning of holocaust broadened to "something totally consumed by fire," and the word eventually was applied to fires of extreme destructiveness. In the 20th century holocaust has taken on a variety of figurative meanings, summarizing the effects of war, rioting, storms, epidemic diseases, and even economic failures. Most of these usages arose after World War II, but it is unclear whether they permitted or resulted from the use of holocaust in reference to the mass murder of European Jews and others by the Nazis. This application of the word occurred as early as 1942, but the phrase the Holocaust did not become established until the late 1950's. Here it parallels and may have been influenced by another Hebrew word, sho'ah ("catastrophe"). In the Bible sho'ah has a range of meanings including "personal ruin or devastation" and "a wasteland or desert." Sho'ah was first used to refer to the Nazi slaughter of Jews in 1939, but its phrase ha-sho'ah ("the catastrophe") only became established after World War II. Holocaust has also been used to translate hurban ("destruction"), another Hebrew word used to summarize the genocide of Jews by the Nazis. This sense of holocaust has since broadened to include the mass slaughter of other peoples, but when capitalized it refers specifically to the destruction of Jews and other Europeans by the Nazis and may also encompass the Nazi persecution of Jews that preceded the outbreak of the war.


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